5  *}—Y*   ^~\f    'i—\*   ^~\*   *l—\*»  *?-* 

*l< ,.-v  l">l--> '  Vl  --Y  Kl^?  I<\  <$  "-\  - 

■' -■'■  ■■:■  ■:•"'■ -■-■'.  ■,-.'< 


^^^M¥^AWMWM 

*2i&J&'J^'2&G'2&<£& 

*2f&2fty2-fty2&&j&&'J& 

g^<-^/i.xii«S)%<.^-<.^.-/rv 


BOSTON : 

EDUCATIONAL   PUBLISHING  COMPANY. 
1S90. 


Ml 


- 

:,       ■.-, 

■.     -    ■!    ,      .    -.  I    0l      -,i    ,    ■      -    .      \S-,.  .    ,     ■.-■,!    , 


MODERN  METHODS 


OR 


THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 


VOL.  III. 


LESSONS  IN  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOSTON— N  EW    TO  BE CHIC  A  <;o. 

EDUCATIONAL  PUBLISHING   (  0  MP  A  NT. 


COPYRIGHT,  1891. 

Br  EDUCATIONAL    PUBLISHING    COMPANT, 

50  Bromfield  Street.   Boston. 


CONTENTS. 


FRONTISPIECE:  Group  of  Sponges. 


Page. 


THE  SPONGE 

Kinds  of  Sponges 

Where  Found 

How  obtained 

How  Prepared  for  Market 

Uses 

SEA  ANEMONE  AND  CORAL 

Names 

Sea  Anemone 

Tentacles 

Lasso-cells  

Mouth,  Stomach,  eto 

Coral 

Coral  Reefs  and  Islands 

The  Chimney  Coral,  (Illustrated)  . 

Uses,  Blackboard  Outline,  etc 

THE  STAR-FISH 

Tubercles,  Pincers,  etc.  

Tube-Feet,  etc.,  Kinds,  Where  Found, 

Black-board  Outline,  Composition,  etc.    . 

SEA  URCHIN,  .Illustrated) 

THE  SEA-URCHIN 

Kinds,  Black-board  Outline,  etc 

THE   EARTH-WORM 

Earth-worms,  (Illustrated) 

The  Medicinal  Leech,  (Illustrated)     .... 

ThO  Lug-worm,  (Illustrated) 

Black-board  Outline,  Compositions,  etc. 
THE   CLAM  AND  THE  OYSTER 

The  (lam 

The  Oyster 

Black-board  outline,  etc 

THE  COMMON  SNA II 

The  Shell  and  its  Parts 

The  Garden  Snail,  [Illustrated 

The  Animal  and  its  Parts 

Snails  ami  Slugs  (Illustrated) 

The  COWry,  (Illustrated  

The  Lobster,  (Illustrated 

THE  LOBSTER  AND  THE  CRAR 

Parts  of  Lobster,  {Iilustratetl 

Structure,  Habits,  etc 

Young  Crab.  Bplder-C  rab,  Thorn  back  Crab,  Edible 
Crab  of  Europe,  Common  Crab.  (Illustrated) 
THE (RAH     

Cocoa-nut  Crab,  Hermit  Crab,  Horslioe  Crab,  Jaws, 

/   'ust  rated) 


Kinds  of  Crabs,  Uses,  etc 

Miggestions  and  Notes,  etc.          .... 
SPIDERS 

Foot,  Fang,  Spinning  Apparatus 

Water  Spiders,  (Illustrated) 

Habits,  Nests,  etc 

Trap-Door  Spider,  (Illustrated)     .... 

Garden  Spider,  [Illustrated) 

The  Carious  House  {Poetry)          .... 
INSECTS  

Head,  Body,  Kinds,  etc 

Benefits,  Injuries,  etc 

Insect  and  Spider  (Comparison)    .... 
THE  BEE 

Kinds,  Habits,  etc 

Mason  Bee,  Carpenter  Bee,  Upholsterer,  or  Leaf 
Cutter  Bee,  (Illustrations) 

Kinds,  Building,  Swarming,  Uses,  etc. 
THE  ANT 

The  Brown  Ant's  Dairy  Farm 

White  Ant,  (Illu»trated) 

Habits,  Uses,  etc 

THE  BEETLE       

Water  Beetle,  (Illustrated) 

Kinds,  Description,  etc 

FISHES 

How  do  Fishes  Move? 

The  Covering  of  Fishes 

How  they  Breathe 

How  Flsnes  Feed 

Specimen  Fish 

Sole,  Plaice,  Flounder,  Brill,  Skate  Halibut,  Tur- 

bot,  [Illustrated) 

BIRDS 

The  Skeleton 

How  Birds  Perch 

Birds  of  Prey,  (Illustrated) 

Swimming  Birds,  ;  Illustrated) 

Wading  Birds,  (Illustrated! 

Perchers,  ( Illustrated) 

special  Uses,  Structure 

Legs  and  Feet  of  Bird- 

EAGLE'S  NEST,  (Illustrated' 

THE    EAGLE         

The  Eagle's  Home,  Kinds,  etc 

THE  STORK  

Where  Found,  Uses,  eto. 

Anecdote 

8 


Page. 

37 
38 
39 
39 
40 
41 
41 
42 
42 
43 
44 
45 
45 
46 
47 

48 
49-50 
51 
51 
51 
52 
53 
53 
53 
54 
54 
55 
55 
56 
56 


56 
57 


57 
58 
58 
68 
58 
59 
59 
60 
61 
61 


63 
63 


CONTENTS. 


Pagf. 

Blackboard  Outline 63 

THE  PIGEON 64 

Wood  Pigeon,  (I  llustrat(d) 64 

Carrier  Pigeons,  (Illustrated) 64 

Ring  Dove,  (Illustrated) 65 

SWIMMING  BIRDS 66 

Goose,  (Illustrated ')    • 66 

Ducks,  (Illustrated) 66 

DOMESTIC  FOWLS 67 

Habits.  Houses,  etc 68 

Rooster  and  Hen,  (Illustrated) 68 

LEGS  AND  FEET,  (Mammals) 69 

Walking  and  Running 70 

Climbing 70 

Elephants'  and  Horses'  Feet 70 

Cat's  Feet 70 

Flying 71 

Swimming 71 

Burrowing 71 

Jumping 71 

THE  ELEPHANT 72 

Aggageers  Hunting  an  Elepbant,  (Illustrated)        .  72 

Trunk,  etc 73 

African  Elephant 74 

Kinds,  Character,  Uses                                  v.  7fl 

Hunting,  Suggestions,  etc 76 

THE  BEAVER 77 

The  Bearers  at  Home,  (Illustrated.     ....  77 

THE   FOX.  (Illustrated) 78 

THE  FOX 79 

Anecdote 79 

THE  LEOPARD,  (Illustrated) mi 

THE  LEOPARD            81 

Where  Found,  Description,  etc 81 

THE  POLAR  BEAR 82 

The  Polar  Bear,    llliutrated) 82 

Where  Found,  Habits,  etc 83 


Page. 

THE   RABBIT 84 

Illustration,  Description,  etc 84 

Hares 85 

HARES,  (Illustrated) 85 

THE   MONKEY 86 

Apes,  Monkeys  and  Lemur,  (Illustrated)  ...  86 

Kinds,  Food,  etc 87 

THE  HORSE,  (Illustrated) 88 

THE  HORSE 89 

Description,  Habits,  Use,  etc 89 

COW  AND  CALF,  (Illustrated) 90 

COWS 91 

Where  Found,  Character,  Uses,  etc 91 

THE  HIPPOPOTAMUS,  (Illustration)         ....  92 

THE  HIPPOPOTAMUS 93 

Uses,  Habits,  Character,  etc 93 

THE  RHINOCEROS 94 

Indian  Rhinoceros,  (Illustrated) 94 

Character,  Uses,  Kinds,  etc 95 

PRAIRIE  DOGS,  (Illustrated) 96 

THE  TORTOISE 97 

Kinds,  Structure,  Habits,  etc 97 

Tortoi-e,  (Illustrated) 97 

THE  FROG,  (Illustrated) 98 

THE    FROG 98 

FROGS,  (Illustrated)             100 

THE  FROG 101 

General  Appearance 101 

Locomotion 101 

Breathing 101 

Skeleton  of  a  Frog,  (Illustrated.          ....  101 

Development  of  tin.  Frog,  (Illustrated)      .       .       .  102 

From  Tadpole  to  Frog 102 

Feeding 103 

Haunts 103 

Uses 103 

From  Egg  to  Tadpole 103 


SPONGES. 

£.— Four-Branched  Sponge.    B.— Gelatine  Spouge.    C— Glass  Sponge.    D.— Six-Rayed  Glass  Sponge 


G.— Another  form  ol  Chalk-Sponge.     H.— Vase  or  Fig  Sponge. 
K.—  Cork  Sponge.    L.— Cork  Spouge  (from  the  Side 


E.— Horn  Spouge.    F.— Chalk-Sponge. 

I. — 'yconietraClllata  — another  for f  chalk  Spouge. 

M.     Another  class  of  Gelatine  Sponge. 


MODERN   METHODS 


OR; 


THE  ART  OF  TEACHING. 


VOL.  III. -NATURAL  HISTORY. 


NOTES    OF  LESSON  OX 


THE   SPONGE 


SUGGESTIONS    TO    THE    TEACHER. 

[Sponge  la  so  common  an  article  that  a  piece  can 
easily  be  procured  to  exhibit  in  addition  to  the  pictures. 
A-  an  introduction  show  the  general  differences  between 
animals  and  plants  aa  indicated  by  what  follows.  ( Inly 
the  most  obvious  distinction  of  course]. 

►F  you  prick  a  cat  with  a  pin  it  is  apt  to 
give  evidence  of  pain,  because  it  pos- 
sesses feeling  or,  as  we  say.  sensa- 
tion. 
If  you  prick  a  tree  or  similar  object 
it  shows  no  feeling.  The  tree  hasno  sensa- 
tion. If  you  place  the  cat  iii  one  corner  of  a 
room  and  go  away  ami  after  a  time  return,  you 
will  very  likely  find  her  in  another  part  of  the 
room  or  at  least  in  some  other  position,  and  if  you 
watch  her  you  may  see  her  get  up  and  stretch  her- 
self, and  perhaps  come  toward  you.  In  other 
words,  she  can  move  because  she  wants  to.       We 


say  she  has  the  power  of  voluntary  motion.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  tree  or  a  potted  plant,  having 
j  no  power  of  voluntary  motion,  remains  any  length 
of  time  where  it  is  put.  Again  the  cat  takes  her 
food  into  an  opening  in  the  body  provided  for  the 
purpose,  called  the  mouth,  and  takes  some  of  it 
in  solid  pieces  ;  while  a  tree  shows  no  such  open- 
ing and  is  unable  to  take  in  anything  in  pieces 
even  when  these  are  very  small.  We  might  put 
these  things  together  and  say  that 

(has  no  sensation 
no  voluntary  motion 
nojood-opt  ning 

.NT      and  can  take  no  solid 


lias  sensation 
1   voluntary  motion 
|  /bod*opt  ning    mouth  : 

'and  takes  much  food 

I   ,,,  ■    " 


soHdpieces.  I    food 

But  while  these  tilings  are  true  of  most  animals 
and  most  plants  they  are  not  true  of  all.  Let  us 
now  examine  the  sponge. 

It  does  not  look  like  any  plant  or  any  animal 
with  which  we  are  acquainted,  but  so  far  as  we  can 
tell  it  may  be  either.       If   I   tell  you  that  it  grew 

7 


MODERN    METHODS. 


fast  to  a  stone  or  some  other  object  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water  you  will  say  it  is  most  like  a  plant 
because  it  cannot  move  when  it  wants  to.  So 
indeed  it  was  once  thought  to  be.  But  before  it 
was  taken  from  the  water  it  was  covered  all  over 
with  a  layer  of  slime  something  like  the  white  of 
an  egg,  only  that  it  was  of  a  very  dark  color. 
This  was  the  living  part  proper  and  formed  the 
thing  we  now  call  the  sponge.  This  slime  had  the 
power  of  feeding  on  solid  particles  and  for  this 
and  some  other  reasons  not  easy  to  give  (although 


word  to  say  the  same  thing.  They  call  thein 
Porifera.  These  pores  are  very  like  mouths  and 
while  the  sponge  live*,  a  tiny  stream  of  water  is 
constantly  made  to  pass  into  each  one  of  them  by 
certain  motions  of  the  sponge  itself,  and  with  the 
water  come  floating  in  particles  of  solid  food.  In 
this  way  the  sponge  gets  its  dinner  from  the 
water,  for,  being  unable  to  go  after  its  nourish- 
ment, it  makes  its  food  come  to  it. 

Through  each  of  the  larger  openings  a  stream  of 
water  is  also  continually  running,  but  in  the  oppo- 


it  had  no  sensation  and  could  not  move  from  place 
to  place)  it  is  more  like  an  animal  than  like  a  plant, 
although  very  different  from  such  an  animal  as  tin- 
cat.  So  we  see  that  it  is  not  always  so  easy  to 
tell  an  animal  from  a  plant  as  it  seems  to  be. 

The  living  part  of  this  sponge  is  now  gone,  we 
will  look  at  what  might  In-  called  its  skeleton.  You 
find  all  over  it  a  great  many  very  small  openings 
closely  set,  which  run  down  into  the  sponge.  There 
is  also  a  smaller  number  of  larger  openings  closely 
set,  which  pass  into  the  sponge  in  a  similar  way 
and  both  sets  of  openings  connect  inside  the 
sponge.  The  very  small  ones  are  called  pores 
and  because  they  are  always  present  in  great 
numbers  the  sponges  are  called  by  zoologists  Pore- 
bearers,  although  they  use  a  different  form  of   the 


site  direction,  that  is,  out  of,  and  away  from,  the 
sponge.  (Fig.  1).  This  stream  is  made  up  by 
the  joining  of  the  tiny  streams  which  went  in 
through  the  pores.  A  common  bath  sponge  is 
not  one  animal  like  a  cat,  but  rather  a  number  of 
animals  closely  and  inseparably  joined  together 
and  all  working  in  harmony,  each  resting  content 
with  what  comes  in  its  way  without  trying  to  get 
what  comes  to  another.  But  that  may  be  because 
the  sponge  is  so  low  down  in  the  world.  Roughly 
you  can  sometimes  tell  about  how  many  animals 
1  lelong  to  a  sponge  by  counting  the  larger  openings, 
a  single  large  opening  and  a  great  many  small  ones 
being  considered  to  belong  to  one  animal. 

Kinds  of  Sponges. —  There  are  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  sponges.     Some  of  them  we  should 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


be  hardly  able  to  use  as  we  do  our  ordinary  kind, 
because  the  pari  so  soft  yet  strong  in  the  one  may 
be  iu  others  hard  as  the  bark  of  a  tree,  or  like 
a  mass  of  interlacing  pins  and  needles  though 
often  exquisitely  beautiful  in  shape  ami  linish  as 
in  some  of  the  "spun-glass"  sponges.  (See  Fig. 
.". ).  One  of  tiie  largest  of  the  sponges,  from  its 
form  and  size  known  as  Neptune's  cup,  is  shown 
in  Fig  •_'.  This  grows  to  a  height  of  three  or  four 
feet.  Fig.  8  shows  one  of  the  most  elegant  of  all 
Bpongeswith  its  delicate  lace-work  pattern  Looking 
as  if  woven  of  spun  glass.  This  is  known  as 
Venus's  Bower-basket,  and  gets  to  be  about  twelve 
inches  high.  Both  of  these  pictures  show  only  the 
dead  part :  in  life  both  were  clothed  as  is  our 
ordinary  sponge  with  a  slimy  substance,  but  this 
slime  is  not  the  same  color  in  all  sponges. 

Where  Found. —  Sponges  are  found  nearly 
everywhere  in  the  sea,  except  perhaps  in  polar 
waters,  but  always  most  abundantly  in  the  warmer 
region*.  One  kiud,  generally  greenish  in  color, 
you  may,  by  searching  carefully,  even  find  in  some 
rivers  attached  to  wharves  or  floating  timber.  The 
sponges  of  commerce  are  found  mainly  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  Red  Seas,  and  in  West  Indian 
waters  ;  the  most  valued  being  those  from  the 
Mediterranean,  next  from  the  Red  Sea.  and  lastly 
those  from  the  Bahamas  and  Florida,  which  are 
coarser  and  less  durable  than  the  others.  The 
depth  at  which  the  marketable  kinds  occur  is  any- 
where less  than  thirty  fathoms  (180  ft.)  and  they 
flourish  best  where  the  water  is  clear  and  the  bot- 
tom hard. 

How  Obtained.  —  In  the  Mediterranean 
sponges  are  largely  obtained  by  divers,  but  in  the 
American  fisheries  carried  on  chiefly  about  the 
Bahamas  and  the  Florida  Keys,  they  are  almost 
altogether  gathered  by  hooking  and  dredging. 
The  vessels  engaged  are  small  schooners,  each  pro- 
vided with  several  small  boats  called  dingier,.  Iu 
calm  weather  the  dingy  puts  off  with  two  men,  a 
sculler  and  a  ••  sponger."      The  sponger  has  an   When  the  dingy  is  full,  the   load   is 


sculler  propels  the  boat  the  sponger  hangs  over 
its  side,  looking  into  the  clear  water  below.  When 
he  sees  a  sponge  he  wants  he  raises  his  hook  with 
the  help  of  the  sculler,  grapples  it  and  hauls  it  in. 


taken    to  the 


iron   '-sponge-hook"    with  prongs    fastened   to   a    schooner,  where  the  sponges  are  heaped  up  and  left 
pole  eighteen  to  thirty-five  feet  long.      While  the   till  dead. 


10 


MODERN    METHODS. 


How  Prepared  for  Market. —  When  the 
vessel  itself  is  full  it  makes  for  port,  where  the 
sponges  are  tin-own  into  a  pen  called  a  "  crawl," 
built  for  the  purpose,  into  which  the  tide  can  enter 
and  are  left  to  soak  for  a  week  or  so,  by  which 
time  the  slimy  matter  has  partly  rotted  off.  The 
rest  is  removed  by  beating  with  a  flat  stick  and 
washing.  They  are  then  sorted  into  different 
grades  ami  sold  to  the  dealers.  The  dealers  trim 
them,  assort  them  once  more,  and  put  them  up  in 
bales  or  on  strings  for  export.  This  is  the  usual 
way. 


Uses. —  Sponges  ore  used  for  the  bath  and 
toilet,  by  surgeons,  and  for  cleansing  purposes 
generally.  Also  for  making  hats,  and  for  stuffing 
mattresses  and  carriage  cushions. 

A  simple  black-board  outline  for  this  lesson 
would  be  as  follows  : 

I),  scription. 

Kind. 

Where  found. 

Htm-  gatht  /'••'. 

flow  prepared  for  markt  t. 

Uses. 

—  F.  W.  Staebner. 


XOTES   OF  LESSOX   ON 

SEA  ANEMONE  AND   CORAL. 


[Get  a  specimen  of  coral  to  show  if  possible.  Per- 
haps your  druggist  may  have  a  piece  he  would  be  will- 
ing to  lend  if  you  promise  to  be  careful  of  it;  or  a 
friend  may  have  a  coral  pin.  The  white  kind  is  best 
if  you  can  get  it.  Inn  lie  thankful  for  the  red.  If  you 
live  west  of  the  Hudson  River  perhaps  you  can  get 
some  fossil  coral]. 

?BSERVE  figure  4.  What  do  the  ob- 
jects look  like?  Flowers,  you  say. 
If  you  saw  them  alive  and  from 
above  yon  might  even  say  asters. 
Hut  they  grow  in  the  ocean.  Watch 
them  a  little  and  you  may  see 
the  petal-like  fringes  become  a  little 
longer,  or  shorter,  or  may  perhaps  see  them  en- 
tirely drawn  in.  A  small  animal  may  swim 
near,  act  strangely  for  a  second  and  then  dis- 
appear among  the  row  of  fringes.  This  is  not  a 
plant,  von  say.  Let  us  examine  it  more  care- 
fully.  ' 

The  petal-like  parts  on  top  you  notice  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  circle,  the  free  ends  pointing  away 
from  the  centre  of  the  circle,  that  is  radiating 
from  the  centre.     These  parts  can    move    in    all 


directions.  They  can  be  pushed  out  or  pulled  in, 
and  they  can  in  a  measure  take  hold  of  things. 
They  are  parts  meant  for  a  particular  use.  We 
call  such  parts  of  bodies  organs.  Organs  having 
the  form  and  use  of  these  are  called  tentacles.  In 
the  centre  of  the  circle  which  these  tentacles  border 
is  an  opening  into  which  food  is  put  by  the  tenan- 
cies. This  must  be  a  mouth.  So  our  aster  hav- 
ing a  mouth  and  being  able  to  eat  solid  food  must 
be  an  animal,  although  it  does  not  seem  to  be  able 
to  move  from  place  to  place.  But'  while  it  seems 
to  be  fastened  to  the  bottom  that  is  only  because 
we  have  not  watched  it  long  enongh.  Some  ani- 
mals like  this  can  slowly  shift  position. 

Names. —  Those  that  move  about  are  called 
sea  anemones,  while  those  that  are  really  fixed  to 
one  spot  are  most  of  them  known  as  coral  polyps. 

The  Sea  Anemone- — The  sea  anemone 
whose  name,  you  see,  suggests  its  flower-like  ap- 
pearance, belongs  to  a  group  of  animals  of  which 
there  are  many  different  kiuds.  Compared  with 
the  sponge  they  have  greater  freedom  of  motion 
of  parts  of  the  body,  and  some  can  slowly  travel 


NATURAL    HISTORY, 


11 


from  one  place  to  another  by  sliding  over  the  bot-  and  have  the  power  to  Bting  and   benumb  small 
torn  of  the  water.     Most  of  them  arc  single  ani-   animals    that     they     touch.      These     ■■-tiuging 


mals  though  often  living  in  great  numbers  in  one 
spot ;  but  the  bodies  of  some  are  closely  united  to 
tin'  bodies  of  others  in  much  the  same  way  as  the 


threads"  go  by  the  name  of  thread-cells  or  lasso- 
cells.      They  help  to  secure  food. 

Mouth. — The  tentacles  surround  the  mouth,  a 


Fig.  4. — various  species  of  sea  anemones. 


animals  of  the  bath  sponge.     Sea    anemones   are 

from  an  eighth  of    an  inch    to    over    a    foot    in 
diameter.      Their  bodies  are  soft  and  cylindrical. 

Tentacles. —  At  the  upper  end  are  the  tentacles, 
which  are  hollow  and  usually  gayly  colored.  They 
are  in  one  or  more  rows,  and  Bometimes  number 
over  two  hundred. 

Lasso-cells. —  These  tentacles  contain  minute 
threads    which    can   be    very   quickly    thrown  out 


slit,  which  opens  into  a  little  bag  inside  the  body. 
This  bag  is  the  stomach. 

Stomach. —  The  stomach  extends  only  part 
way  down,  and  has  a  hole  in  the  bottom,  so  that 
food  can  pass  to  Other  parts  of  the  hollow  body. 
The  whole  body  is  not  unlike  a  bag  with  a  smaller 
bag  inside. 

Body-partitions. —  The  larger  bag  or  sack 
is  divided  off  by  vertical  partitions  which  run  from 


12 


MODERN   METHODS. 


its  inside  to  the  outside  of  the  stomach  iu  the  mid- 
dle of  the  body,  something  like  the  cells  of  an 
orange  if  the  jucy  part  alone  were  removed. 
Some  of  these  partitions  run  toward  but  do  not 
cpiite  reach  the  stomach.  If  we  should  take  a  slice 
across  the  body  it  would  look  like  Fig.  5.  The 
outer  ring  represents  the  cut  end  of  the  body  wall, 
the  inner  ring,  the  stomach,  and  the  cut  ends  of 
the  partitions  show  as  radiating  lines  like  the 
spokes  of  a  wheel. 

Radiated  Structure. —  So  the  animal  has 
what  may  be  called  a  wheel-like  or  radiating  struc- 
ture. You  will  sometimes  read  descriptions  in 
which  it  and  other  animals  formed  like  it  are  called 
Radiates. 


When  sea-anemones  die  their  bodies  quickly  de- 
cay, and,  except  iu  a  few  cases,  nothing  remains 
behind  of  these  beautiful  "  flowers  of  the  sea." 

CORAL. 

Coral  Polyps. —  Coral  polyps  closely  resem- 
ble sea-aueinones  in  shape,  size  and  structure, 
but  they  form  a  stony  substance  that  remains  after 
the  death  of  the  polyps.  This  stony  substance  is 
coral. 

Coral. —  These  polyps  are  not  insects,  as  is  so 
often  stated,  especially  in  poetry,  and  they  do  not 
build  the  coral  as  a  wasp  does  its  nest,  but  iu  the 
sense  in  which  we  do  our  bones.  The  polyps 
separate  this  substance  from  the  sea-water  iu  which 
they  live  ;    that  is,  they  secrete  it.      Some  polyps 


secrete  it  inside  the  body,  and  then  the  coral  takes 
on  the  radiated  structure  of  the  animal.  Other 
polyps  secrete  the  coral  at  the  base  of  the  body, 
and  then  it  does  not  show  this  structure.  Red  or 
precious  coral  is  of  the  latter  kind.  In  red  coral  the 
polyps  themselves  are  colorless. 


Pig.  ii— branch  of  coral. 


Coral,  like  sponge,  may  be  called  the  skeleton 
of  the  animals,  or  better  a  collection  of  skeletons, 
for  it  takes  a  great  many  polyps  to  make  even  a 
small  piece  of  coral. 


FIG.    7. —AN  ATOLL  — CORAL    ISLAND. 

Kinds  of  Coral. —  Coral  appears  in  many 
different  forms;  some  kinds  branch  like  shrubs, 
others  are  more  or  less  rounded  lumps,  often  of 
considerable  size,  As  to  color  there  are  two  chief 
kinds,  the  white  (brownish  before  it  is  bleached) 
that  we  commonly  see,  and  the  red  or  precious 
coral.  Only  the  upper  parts  of  any  growing  coral 
are  being  added  to  by  the  polyps,  so  the  branching 
kinds  may  be  likened  to  plants  in  which  the  polyps 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


13 


at  the  top  represent  the   buds  that  will  grow  into 
new  branches. 

Coral  Reefs  and  Islands. —  Sea   anemones 
and  coral  polyps  are  found  nearly  everywhere  in 


from  any  continent,  they  come  above  the  water, 
forming  the  beautiful  coral  islands.  Many  of  these 
are  rough  circular  rims  of  land  surrounding  a  lake 
of  shallow  water,  called  the  lagoon,  and  having  the 


Fig.  8.— the  chimney  coral. 


the  ocean  but  are  most  abundant  where  the  water 
is  warm  throughout  the  year.  Here  iu  many 
places  the  polyps  nourish  so  that  they  form  great 
masses  that  reach  almost  or  quite  to  the  top  of  the 
water.  Where  these  are  near  land  they  are  called 
coral  reefs.     In  parts  of  the  Pacific    Ocean,    far 


deep  ocean  outside.  (See  Fig.  7).  On  some 
of  them  cocoa-nut  trees  grow  and  savages  live. 
On  one  coral  island  visited  by  Prof.  Dana, 
where  there  were  only  birds,  these  were  so  tame 
that  he  could  take  them  from  the  trees  as  if 
thej    were    flowers.       Usually    there    is    a    pas- 


14 


MODERN   METHODS. 


sage,  often  deep  enough  to  allow  ships  to  sail 
through,  into  the  lagoon.  There  are  reefs  around 
Florida  (Florida  Keys) ,  the  Bahamas  and  Cuba. 
The  Caroline,  Marshall,  and  Fiji  Islands  in  the 
Pacific  are  some  examples  of  coral  islands.  (Have 
the  pupils,  if  thev  are  old  enough,  find  these  places 
on  the  map.) 

In  many  places  on  the  continents  and  miles  from 
the  ocean  are  now  found  great  masses  of  coral 
often  not  very  different  from  such  as  is  found  in 
reefs  and  islands.  How  did  it  get  where  it  now 
is?  This  is  what  is  know  as  fossil  coral.  Iowa 
City  is  built  on  such  a  mass.  At  the  Falls  of  the 
Ohio,  near  Louisville,  is  another  such,  and  there  are 
many  others. 

Uses. —  Both  red  and  white  coral  are  used  for 
ornament,  but  only  the  red  has  a  market  value, 
and  the  paler  sorts  of  this  are  the  more  valuable. 
Red  coral  is  obtained  from  different  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  where  it  is  dredged  for.  It  is 
worked  principally  in  Italy  ;  an  outer  portion  known 
as  the  "bark"  being  first  taken  off.  The  manu- 
factured article  comes  mainly  from  Genoa,  Naples, 
and  Leghorn. 


Note. — A  piece  of  any  common  white  coral  will  show 
the  radiated  structure.  If  your  specimen  is  one  of  the 
ordinary  branching  sorts,  each  of  the  little  projections 
scattered  so  thickly  over  the  surface,  is  the  secretion 
of  one  polyp.  Note  the  size  and  number  of  the  polyps 
concerned  in  making  even  a  small  branch.  If  you  have 
one  of  the  lumps,  or  "head  corals,"  you  can  see  the 
structure  readily,  and  can  also  tell  the  size  and  number 
of  the  poylps,  unless  it  be  "  brain  coral,"  in  which  the 
polyps  merge  one  into  another  and  the  skeleton  does 
not  show  the  work  of  one  distinctly.  In  the  ''mush- 
room coral,"  made  by  a  single  animal,  one  of  the  largest 
of  polyps,  the  radiating  plates  are  very  conspicuous. 
Red  coral  does  not  show  this  structure.  Many  of  the 
fossil  corals  do  so  beautifully. 

Appended  are  two  black-board  outlines  of  this  lesson, 
one,  of  the  points  to  be  covered  for  older  children,  the 
other,  of  points  for  very  young  pupils.  You  can  gauge 
the  capacity  of  your  pupils  best,  and  will  give  more  or 
less  accordingly.  A  few  headings  are  also  added  of 
subjects  for  composition.  If  you  wish  more  informa- 
tion, and  are  near  a  library,  get  Dana's  "Corals  and 
Coral  Islands."     If  you  should  have   a  recent  Zoology. 


you  will  find  corals  described  under  the  general  division 
Coelenterates ;  in  older  books  under  Kadiates. 


BLACK-BOARD     OUTLINE. 


Fo 

/■  Older  Pupils. 

Fur  Younger  Pupils 

SEA   ANEMONE. 

SEA  ANEMONE. 

Form. 

Size. 
body. 

tentacles. 

Form  and  size. 

Body. 

Tentacles. 

Parts.  • 

lasso-cells. 

Stinging-threads. 

mouth, 
stomach. 

Wheel-like  structure. 

body-partitions. 

Radiated  structure. 

CORAL  POLYPS. 

CORAL  POLYPS. 

Description. 

Description. 

f  how  formed. 

Coral. 

Coral.  \  where  found. 

Uses. 

kinds. 

CORAL   REEFS    AND 
ISLANDS. 

Uses  of  coral. 
Where  obtained. 


COMPOSITION. 

SUBJECTS    FOR    OLDER    PUPILS. 
Describe  the  Sea  Anemone. 
Differences  beticeen  Sea  Anemone  and  the  Coral  Polyp. 

Tentacles  and  lasso-cells. 

Why  said  to  have  radiated  Structure. 

What  is  coral ? 

Describe  any  kind  of  coral  you  have  seen. 

<  'oral  Islands  and.  where  found. 

How  does  a  polyp  resemble  an  animal?    How  a  plant? 


SUBJECTS    FOR    YOUNGER    PUPILS. 

Tell  why  Sea  Anemone  is  not  afiower. 

TellhOW  la  roc  the  Sea  Anemone  is. 

Write  about  the  Tentacles  and  what  they  can  do. 

What  are  the  stinging  threads  for? 

Tell  about  coral. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


15 


Fig.  9. 


Fig.  10. 


ITOTBS  OFLESSOA  OtT 

THE   STAR-FISH. 


GENERAL    DESCRIPTION    AND   NAME. 

EE  the  curious  star-shaped  object  in 
Fig.  9.  Star-Jish  is  right  —  that  is, 
it  is  commonly  so  called.  It  lives  in 
the  water,  aud  at  a  time  wheu  every- 
thing that  lived  iu  the  water  was  a 
fish,  this  was  a  Star-fish,  and  so  it  remains 
to  this  day.  (Where  have  you  seen  a 
similar  structure?  What  shall  we  call  it?)  Fig. 
9  shows  the  upper  surface.  Fig.  li»  the  under  side. 

Tubercles  and  Madreporic  Tubercle.  — 

All  over  the  upper  side  are  little  prickles  of  tuber- 
cles. Just  one  side  of  the  centre,  in  the  angle 
between  two  of  the  branches  or  rays,  is  a  tuber- 
cle somewhat  different  from  the  others,  —  larger, 
flatter,  and  with  a  rounded  (convex)  top,  looking 
not  unlike  a  wart.  This  little  thing  is  called  by 
the  long  name  of  the  madreporic  tubercle  or  mad- 
reporic body. 


Grooves  and  Mouth.  —  On  the  under  side, 
which  is  nearly  flat,  each  of  the  five  rays  has  a 
groove  running  from  its  tip,  along  its  middle,  to 
the  centre  of  the  star,  iu  all,  therefore,  five  of 
these  grooves  meetiug  at  the  centre,  where  there 
is  au  opening  into  the  body  of  the  animal.  Into 
this  opening  the  food  goes.  ( What  do  you  think 
it  is?)  Along  the  grooves,  —  if  your  specimen 
is  large  enough,  has  been  well  cleaned,  and  your 
eyesight  is  good, — you  cau  see  numerous  very 
small  holes.  This  is  about  all  you  can  readily 
find  in  a  dried  star-fish. 

Pincers. — When  your  star-fish  was  alive,  it 
was  covered  all  over  with  a  thin,  soft,  yet  toughish 
skin,  and  the  rays  could  move  in  all  directions. 
Scattered  about  among  the  tubercles,  which  now 
make  up  its  skeleton,  wen-  a  great  number  of  little 
pincers,  consisting  of  a  stein  and  two  prongs, 
which  could  sway  about  and  snap  open  aud  shut, 
bat  you  would    need    a    magnifying   glass    to   see 


16 


MODERN   METHODS. 


them  well.  These  pincers  are  supposed  to  keep 
the  body  clean  and  to  help  the  animal  in  getting 
about,  by  seizing  hold  of  floating  sea-weed  until 
it  can  use  its  other  organs. 

Tube-Feet.  —  Along  the  grooves,  in  the  under 
side  of  the  rays,  and  connecting  with  the  inside 
of  the  body  through  the  little  holes  before  men- 
tioned, are  four  rows  of  little  movable  tubes,  most 
of  which  have  a  sucker  at  the  end,  and  can  be 
stuck  out  (protruded)  or  pulled  in  (retracted)  as 
the  star-fish  pleases.     They  show  in  a  dried  speci- 


affected,  no  longer  cared  anything  about  the  light, 
and  so  the  spots  are  known  as  eye-spots. 

Stomach.  — The  mouth  opens  into  a  thin  bag 
inside  the  body,  which  serves  as  a  stomach ;  and 
one  of  the  curious  things  about  this  stomach  is, 
that  the  star-fish  can  take  it  out  to  eat  his  dinner, 
and  put  it  back  again  when  he  has  filled  it :  a  trick 
he  often  indulges  in.  From  the  stomach  branches 
are  given  off  to  each  ray,  which  is  hollow. 

Separation  of  a  Ray.  —  Another  curious 
thing  about  his  starship  is,  that  the  loss  of  one  or 


Fro.  11. 


men  that  has  not  been  cleaned  as  rows  of  shrivelled 
yellowish  or  brownish  matter.  With  these  the 
animal  can  take  hold  and  slowly  pull  himself  over 
the  bottom  —  the  common  star-fish  a  distance  of 
about  two  inches  in  a  minute  (perhaps  on  his  way 
to  school ) .  Since  these  tubes  are  used  as  feet, 
we  will  call  them  tube-feet.  Although  the  tube- 
feet  are  only  on  the  under  side,  the  star-fish  when 
turned  over  on  his  back  can,  by  their  help,  put 
himself  r i tr  1 1 1  side  up  again.  The  tube-feet  of 
one  ray  are  connected  "by  other  tubes  with  those 
of  another  ray,  and  all  are  connected  with  the 
madreporic  body,  which  seems  to  be  a  sort  of 
sieve  to  let  water  into  them. 

Eye-Spots.  —  At  the  tip  of  each  ray  is  a 
small  reddish  spot.  It  has  been  found  that  star- 
fish, which  before  moved  towards  the  light,  after 
the  removal  of  these  spots,  though  otherwise  un- 


more  of  his  rays  does  not  trouble  him  much.  He 
just  sets  to  work  and  grows  another  in  its  place ; 
and,  stranger  still,  the  lost  ray  sometimes  grows 
others  anil  starts  out  for  itself  in  the  oyster  busi- 
ness. A  single  separated  ray,  of  course,  crawls 
about  in  the  same  way  as  tin'  whole  animal,  and 
will  put  itself  on  its  feet  again  if  turned  over. 

Kinds  of  Star-fish.  —  Our  common  star-fish 
is  only  one  of  a  number  of  like  animals,  some  of 
which  are  pictured  in  Fig.  11,  and  you  can  com- 
pare them  witli  one  another  and  with  Fig.  9.  The 
two  outer  ones  do  not  have  the  stomach  branching 
into  the  rays,  and  differ  in  other  details. 

Where  Found.  —  Star-fishes  of  some  sort 
are  found  almost  everywhere  in  the  sea.  Our 
common  one  anywhere  along  the  coast,  especially 
in  the  region  of  the  oyster  beds. 

Uses. — The  star-fish  may  have  uses  more  im- 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


17 


portent  to  us  than  we  know  of,  but  he  has  a  habit 
of  eating  oysters,  of  which  he  seems  to  be  very 
fond,  and  so  oystermen  do  not  like  him. 

Suggestions  to  the  Teacher.  —  A  dried 
star-fish  ran  be  obtained  from  a  coast-fisherman, 
and  can  often  be  picked  up  along  the  beach  of 
tin'  New  England  and  Middle  States,  if  yon  go  to 
the  sea-shore.  Yon  may  be  able  to  get  one  through 
your  fish-dealer,  if  you  live  in  an  inland  city.  All 
these  methods  failing,  specimens  can  lie  purchased 
of  the  Huston  Society  of  Natural  History.  For 
further  details  in  anatomy,  consult  Brooks'  "  Hand- 
book of  Invertebrate  Zoology,"  and  for  interest- 
ing experiments  on  the  living  animal,  see  Romanes' 
"Jelly-fish,  Star-fish,  and  Sea-urchins,"  both  of 
which  you  will  find  in  any  city  library.  It  may 
be  a  help  to  remember  that  in  the  books  the  tube- 
feet  are  called  ambulacra;  the  grooves  ambulacra 
grooves;  the  pincers  pedicdlarim.  The  lower  side 
is  the  nrnl,  the  upper  the  aboral. 

Below  are  the  outlines  for  the  black-board  for 
older  and  younger  pupils,  respectively,  which  you 
can  modify  to  suit  your  purpose. 


I'.l.Ai    li    HOAWO     OUTLINE. 
STAR-FISH. 


Fur  m. 


Purls 


rays. 

tubercles  and  madreporic  tubercle. 

pincers. 

mouth. 

grooves. 

tube-feet. 

eye-spots. 

stomach. 


Kinds  of  Star-fish. 

Where  found. 
Uses. 


Form. 


Star-fish. 


(  rays. 

I  prickles  and  sieve. 

|  pincers. 
Parti  !  mouth. 

I  grooves. 

I  tube-feet. 

[eyes. 
Where  found. 
Uses. 


Fig.  12. 

COMPOSITION    SUBJECTS. 

FOR    OLDER    PUPILS. 

Compare  the  upper  and  under  sides  of  a  star-fish. 
Describe  the  locomotive  organs  as  to  number,  form, 
situation. 

Describe,  from  the  pictures,  some  of  the  kinds  of 
star-fish. 

Compare  the  Star-fish  with  any  other  fish  you  have 

M'l'l). 

Name  the  different  parts  of  a  star-fish,  and  tell  the 
uses  of  such  as  you  know. 

Put  together  all  you  know  about  star-fish,  and  then 
tell  the  story  of  a  star-fish. 

Suppose  yourself  a  star-tish  :  tell  where  yon  live  and 
what  you  see  and  do  every  day. 

Tell  how  the  star-tish  is  like  and  how  unlike  the  sea- 
anemone. 


COMPOSITION    SUBJECTS. 

FOR    YOUNGER    PUPILS. 

Tell  what  is  on  top,  and  what  on  under  ~iile  of  star- 
fish. 

What  makes  the  star-tish  an  animal? 

Write  a  Story  tellinir  all  you   know  about  the  star- 
fish. 

Tell  where  a  star-fish's  eyes,  month,  and  feet  are. 

Tell  why  you  wouldn't  like  to  be  a  star-fish. 

—  F.    W.    STAEBNER. 


18 


MODERN  METHODS. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


19 


NOTES  OF  LESSON   ON 


THE   SEA-URCHIN. 


'AYE  you  ever  seen  anything  like  Fig. 
14  ?  Yes,  it  looks  quite  a  little  like 
an  egg,  being  white  and  rounded  and 
brittle,  and  so  is  sometimes  called  a 
•■  sea-egg."  Hut  when  lirst  obtained 
appears  very  different,  having  all  over 
the  outside  a  great  number  of  slender 
little  prickles  or  spines,  and  so  is  called  a  sea- 
urchin.     (See  opposite  page). 

UPPER    SIDE. 

Spines  and  Knobs. —  When  these  spines  are 
removed,  as  they  are  in  Fig.  1,  we  find  an  equal 
number  of  little  knobs.  (How  does  it  compare  in 
this  respect  with  a  Btar-fish?)  We  can  readily 
make  out  that  these  knobs  or  tubercles  are  in  dis- 
tinct rows,  making  five  double  lines  radiating  from 
th>'  centre  of  the  top.  not  unlike  the  Hi.-  on  a  musk- 
melon.  Between  each  two  of  these  rows  is  a 
double  line  of  smaller  knobs  nearer  together ;  and 
there  are  still  smaller  knobs  scattered  all  over  the 
rest  of  the  surface. 

Madreporic  Body. —  Surrounding  the  cen- 
tral point  of  the  ti.p  are  live  irregular  pieces  or 
plates,  the  largest  of  which  corresponds  to  the 
madreporic  body  of  the  star-fish.  (These  plate- 
are  usually  broken  away  in  the  cleaned  sea-urchin, 
leaving  an  irregular  opening. )  The  whole  shell 
or,  better,  skeleton,  is  made  up  of  very  many  some- 


what similar  pieces  or  i>hiti>s,  beautifully  fitted 
together, —  in  an  urchin  of  ordinary  size,  between 
five  and  six  hundred — and  when  it  is  let  fall  it  is 
very  apt  to  break  in  a  zig-zag  line  between  a 
double  row  of  the  knobs  :  the  zig-zag  being  made 
by  the  angular  edges  of  these  plates. 

Tube-Feet  Openings. —  Along  one  side  of 

eaeli  of  the  double  rows  of  smaller  knobs,  that  is, 
between  one  line  of  small  knobs  and  the  next  row 
of  larger  knobs.  i>  :i  series  of  very  small  openings, 
liner  than  pin  holes,  running  parallel  with  the 
knobs,  and,  therefore,  also  forming  radiating 
lines. 

Turning  our  sea-urchin  over,  we  find  the  under 
side  rather  flatfish  and  curving  inwards  towards 
the  centre,  that  i-,  concave. 

Mouth  and  Stomach. —  In  this  centre  is  an 
opening  leading  to  the  stomach,  inside  which  is  a 
long  tube  coiled  up.  but  ending  at  a  place  nearly 
opposite  the  starting-point.  ( How  ih.es  this  stom- 
ach compare  with  that  of  the  star-fish?)  The 
opening  to  this  stomach  is,  of  course,  the  month. 

Aristotle's  Lantern.  —  In  the  mouth  is  a 
curious-apparatus  consisting  of  five  long  and  slen- 
der curved  objects  much  like  the  front   teeth  of  a 

rat,  SO  arranged  that  the  points  all  Come  together 
in  the  form  of  :c  cone,  the  tip  of  which  projects  a 
little  way  out  of  the  mouth.  This  Strange  appara- 
tus, with  its  support-,  goes  by  the  fanciful  name 
of  "  Aristotle's  Lantern"  or  simply  the  ••lantern." 
There  is  nothing  like  this  in  any  star-fish;  but.  it 
is  also  true,  that  not  all  kinds  of  sea-urchins  have 
it. 

Toward  the  mouth  the  radiating  lines   of   knobs 

and  pin-holes  from  the  other    side   again   approach 

on.'  another  (converge),  and  so  the   lower  side  of 

sea-urchin  looks  much   like  the  top.      (Is  the 

under  side  of  a  star-fish  a-  much  like  the  top?) 

Liki  the  Star-fish  our  sea-urchin  has  a  radiate 
structure,  and  in  life,  i-  covered  with  a  similar  thin 


20 


MODERN   METHODS. 


and  leathery  skin.  The  spines  are  fastened  to  the 
knobs  scattered  all  over  his  outside,  and  can  be 
moved  in  any  direction. 

Tube-Feet. —  Through  the  minute  holes,  we 
noticed,  come  little  tube-fret  (about  2000  in  an 
animal  of  average  size)  just  as  in  the  star-fish, 
but  longer  than  the  longest  spines.  (On  what 
part  of  the  body  are  these  tube-feet  situated  in  the 
star-fish?) 

Pincers. —  Also,  as  in  the  star-fish,  there  are 
all  over  the  sea-urchin  the  little  snapping  pincers. 

If  we  imagine  a  star-fish  with  his  rays  folded 
over  his  back  and  the  spaces  between  filled  up,  we 
shall  have  something  verv  like  a  sea-urchin. 


FIG.  15. 

KINDS    OF    SEA-URCHIN. 

There  are  many  different  sorts,  to  some  of 
which  the  name  of  "  sea-egg"  would  hardly  apply, 
as  for  instance  the  flattened  one  of  Fig.  15,  about  as 
large  and  as  thick  as  a  silver  dollar  and  known  as 
a  "sand-dollar"  or  "sand-cake."  The  spines 
also  vary  much  in  size  :  in  the  "  sand-cake  "  they 
are  tiny  prickles,  while  in  one  form  from  the 
Indian  Ocean  (Fig.  16),  the  opposite  extreme  is 
shown.  A  common  sea-urchin  of  the  Mediterranean 
grows  to  the  size  of  an  infant's  head. 

Sea-urchins  move  about,  mouth  downward,  like 
star-fish  among  rocks  and  sea-weed.  Some  live  in 
mud,  others  bore  holes  in  rocks  and  dwell-in  these. 
They  eat  sea-weed  and  dead  animal  matter. 

Where  Found. — <  >ur  common  urchin  is  found 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States. 
Other  forms  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
ocean,  mainly  in  the  warmer  regions. 


Uses. — On  the  Mediterranean  shores,  especially 
of  France  and  Italy,  the  large  urchin  mentioned 
above  is  an  article  of  food. 


BLACK'BOARD     OUTLINE. 
SEA-URCHIN. 


Form 


(  Upper  side. 

\  Under  side. 
Spines 

Madreporic  body. 
Tube-feet  openings. 
"  Aristotle's  lantern." 
Kinds  of  Sea-urchin. 


Knobs  in  rows. 
Body  plates. 
Mouth  and  stomach. 
Pincers  and  tube-feet. 
Where  found.     Use. 


For  younger  pupils  a  similar  outline  with  omission  of 
"  Aristotle's  lantern."  Subjects  for  composition  will  be 
suggested  by  the  preceding  lesson  on  star-fish,  to  which 
comparisons  between  the  two  forms  might  be  added. 

Specimens  may  be  obtained  from  sources  for  Star-fish 
mentioned  in  a  previous  lesson.  To  older  pupils  the  limy 
(calcareous)  nature  of  the  "  shell"  and  its  similarity  in 
this  respect  to  a  common  egg-shell  may  be  shown  by 
putting  on  each  in  turn  a  drop  of  muriatic  acid  (  from 
an  apothecary's),  and  observing  the  bubbling  (efferves- 
cence) that  takes  place.  (Be  careful  not  to  get  the 
acid  on  your  clothes). 


For  further  details  of  structure  see  Brooks'  Invertebrate  Zoo- 
l°ffy>  for  interesting  experiments  on  motion  and  senses, 
Romanes'  Jellyfish,  Star-fish,  and  Sea-urchins.  Both  Star  fish 
and  Sea-urchins  were  formerly  placed  among  Radiates  ;  that 
group  has  now  been  separated,  such  members  of  it  as  have 
the  stomach  communicating  directly  with  the  body  cavity 
(sea-anemone,  etc.) ,  forming  the  division  C(e/enterate8  or 
Cazlenterata;  those  in  which  the  stomach  is  cut.  off  from  9ucn 
communication  forming  the  group  Echinoderms  (  EehinoUer- 
mala).    Starfishes  and  sea-urchins  fall  in  the  latter  division. 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


21 


\OTKS   OF   LESSON   o.v 


THE    EARTH-WORM. 


FIG.    1. 

NLY  a  worm  !  '"  But  even  a  worm 
may  teach  us  something.  Let  us 
see  what  we  can  find  out  by  looking 
at  him. 

Form.  —  We  ean  see  that  the   soft 
body  is  long,  cylindrical,  and  tapers  at 
each   end.      One  end  is  somewhat  slen- 
derer than  the  other.      (Fig.  1). 

Head-end.  —  This  is  the  forward  or  head-end. 
(Is  there  any  distinct  head?)  The  other,  of 
course,  is  the  tail-end.  In  the  full-grown  worm 
toward  this  head-end.  that  is,  nearer  it  than  the 
other,  is  a  thickened  whitish  part  called  the  girdle 
or  saddle. 

Body-ringS.  —  The  whole  body  is  made  up 
of  ring-like  joints,  and  such  a  structure  is  called 
jointed,  or  articttlated,irbich  means  about  the  same 
thing.  Of  these  body-rings  or  ring-like  joints 
there  may  lie  as  many  as  three  hundred  and  fifty. 
(Are  they  all  alike  in  size ?  | 

Locomotive  Bristles.  —  Each  of  these  rings 
has  on   its   under  side  (that  part  which   forms  the 


nniler  side  of  the  worm)  very  small  spines  or 
bristles, — too  small  to  be  easily  seen  by  the  eye, 
but  they  can  lie  felt  as  little  points  by  drawing  a 
worm  backward  over  the  fore-finger.  The  bristles 
help  the  worm  to  move  over  the  ground,  simply 
by  preventing   it    from   slipping.     We    may  call 

them  locomotive-bristles.  (  Are  they  more  or  less 
useful  than  the  tube-feet  of  the  star-fish  or  sea- 
urchin?) 

Mouth  and  Food-tubes. — On   the   under 

side  of  the  first  ring  (counting  from  the  forward 
end)   i.s  a  hole  into  which  the  food  goes. 

Looking  again  at  the  living  animal  notice  the 
pearly  shine  of  the  skin  and  through  it  a  dark 
line  (sometimes  faint)  running  along  the  middle, 
the  whole  length  of  the  body.  This  (lark  line  is 
a  tube,  which  traced  to  the  forward  end  turns  out 
to  be  the  opening  into  which  the  food  goes.  'I' raced 
the  other  way  it  ends  in  an  opening  in  the  last 
body-ring.  This  tube  is  the  food-tube,  and  in  it 
there  is  generally  earth.  (Why  does  it  look  like 
a  dark  line  on  the  body?) 

"  Blood-tube." — Immediately  above  the  food- 
tube,  joined  to  it  and  following  its  course  is  a  thin- 
ner red  line,  which  is  also  a  tube  containing  a  red 
liquid.  This  we  may  call  the  "  blood-tube,"  though 
it  is  not  certain  that  this  red  liquid  corresponds  to 
the  blood  of  other  animals. 

SPECIAL    SENSES,    FOOD,    HABITS. 

Facts  to  be  Told.  —  The  earth-worm  has  no 
eyes,  so,  of  course,  cannot  see  objects:  but  the 
head-end  can  distinguish  light  from  darkness. 
The  sense  of  touch  is  acute. 

Earth-worms  eat  meat,  fresh  and  partly  decayed 
leaves  of  nearly  all  kinds,  and  dirt, — the  last  for 
the  particles  of  vegetable  matter  in  it.  The  great 
naturalist  Darwin  found  that  they  have  preferences 
in  the  matter  of  food.  Some  worms  which  he 
kept  in  pots  of  earth  and  fed  with  leaves  of  cab- 


22 


MODERN    METHODS. 


EARTH-WORMS. 

bage,  horse-radish,  and  onion  at  once  always  ate 
the  onion  leaves  first.  When  he  fed  cabbage, 
lime,  parsnip  and  celery  leaves  together,  the  celery 
was  first  eaten  ;  and  when  he  tried  leaves  of  tur- 
nip, beet,  celery,  wild  cherry,  and  carrots,  the 
worms  every  time  ate  the  wild  cherry  and  carrot 
leaves  before  the  celery,  from  which  he  concluded 
that  they  have  some  taste  as  to  their  food,  and 
that  all  leaves  do  not  taste  alike  to  them. 

They  breathe  through  their  skin  and  need  some 
moisture  in  the  air  or  in  their  surroundings. 

They  dig  their  way  into  the  ground  to  a  depth 
of  six  feet  or  a  little  more,  and  remain  in  their 


THE  MEDICINAL  LEECH. 


holes  all  day,  coming  out  only  at  night  unless 
forced  out.  The  little  twisted  lumps  of  earth 
("  castings,"  as  they  are  called),  so  often  seen  on 
top  of  the  ground  and  in  the  garden  walks  in  the 
morning,  are  left  by  the  worms,  being  the  remains 
of  the  dirt  eaten  by  them. 

Kinds  of  Worms.  —  Our  earth-worm,  or 
angle-worm,  is  only  one  of  the  worms,  of  which 
there  are  a  great  many.     The  leech,  still  used  by 


physicians,  is  a  worm,  but  the  caterpillar  is  not  a 
worm.  Pond-leeches  and  hair-worms  are  known 
to  most  country  boys ;  and  the  tape- worm  and 
trichina  are  worms  you  may  have  heard  of. 


THE   LUG-WORM. 

Where  Found  ?  — Earth-worms  are  abundant 
all  over  the  world  in  damp  soil.  Leeches  and 
some  other  worms  occur  in  fresh  water.  Many 
worms  are  found  in  the  sea  ;  and  still  others,  more 
or  less  dangerous,  live  in  the  bodies  of  other 
animals. 

Uses. —  Earth-worms  may  be  good  to  bait  fish- 
hooks with,  but  they  are  far  more  useful  to  loosen 
the  soil  so  that  plants  may  grow,  and  they  not 
only  loosen  it  but  help  make  it.  They  may  occa- 
sionally injure  crops,  but  so  does  the  rain  and  who 
would  want  to  do  without  that?  They  also  fur- 
nish food  to  man  as  well  as  birds,  being  eaten  by 
some  tribes  of  Indians. 

For  the  preceding  lesson  the  black-board  outline 
might  be  as  follows,  cutting  it  down  at  your  dis- 
cretion for  young  pupils. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


23 


:bi_a.cm-c-:boa.i*i-»   ouTmvB. 


Form. 


Parts. 


THE    EARTH-WORM. 

bead-end,  tail-end, 
i  saddle;, 

ii.i<h  -rings, 

[i  icomotive  bristles, 

mouth, 

Food-tube, 

"  til l-tube." 

Food,  habits. 

Kinds  nf  worms. 
WTiere  found. 
Uses. 


Live  worms  can  l>e  collected  by  digging  for 
them  in  damp  earth  when  the  ground  is  unfrozen, 
at  which  time  they  can  also  \>i  found  under  almost 
any  board  or  stone  that  lias  lain  for  some  time  in 
contact  with  the  ground.  (The  boys  will  be  glad 
to  get  them  for  you).  Little  children  will  not  be 
afraid  of  them  and  the  repugnance  of  older  ones 
can  soon  lie  overcome  if  you  act  as  if  you  were 
not  in  mortal  tenor  yourself,  and  by  reflecting  a 
moment  you  will  see  that  they  can  do  you  no  in- 
jury- They  are  not  poisonous  and  they  have  no 
teeth.     For   temporary  observation   they  can   be 


placed  on  plates  or  saucers  previously  rinsed  in 
cold  water  and  left  wet.  They  can  be  kept  easily 
in  tin-boxes  with  holes  in  the  cover  and  containing 
moist  earth. 

COMPOSITIONS. 

If  you  can  persuade  any  of  the  pupils  to  observe 
them  out  of  school  hours  they  might  make  the  fol- 
lowing easy,  original  observations,  which  would  be 
excellent  subjects  for  composition,  or  which,  as  a 
special  honor,  they  could  be  called  up  to  tell  the 
rest  of  the  school. 

1.  How  does  the  earth-worm  crawl,  and   can    he 

crawl  backward  as  well  as  forward? 

2.  What    happens    to    the    body-rings    when    lie 

stretches  himself? 

3.  How  many  body-rings  lias  an  earth-worm? 

■■  What  I  know  about  earth-worms  "  would  be 
a  subject  for  the  school,  letting  them  write 
what  they  remember  of  the  lesson  with  due 
regard  to  construction  of  sentences,  spelling, 
*  punctuation,  etc.  :  or  a  comparison  of  the 
earth-worm  with  any  one  or  all  of  the  ani- 
mals of  the  previous  lesson. 

Note.—  For  interesting  facts  concerning  the  habits  and  wort 
of  earth-worms  see  "Darwin's  Vegetable  Mould  ami  Earth- 
worms." — F.  W.  Staebxeb. 


In  the  sim.  the  moon,  the  sky: 

On  the  mountains,  wild  and  nigh; 

In  the  thunder,  in  the  rain 
In  tin-  grove,  the  wood,  The  plain; 
In  the  little  birds  that  sing, — 
G...1  i-  seen  in  everything. 

The  worm  that  crawls  along  the  ground, 
God  made  of  use  to  man  ; 

So  we,  though  low  our  station   be, 
Musi  do  what  e'er  we  can. 

There's  not  a  leaf  within  the  bower, 

There's  not  a  bird  upon  the  tree. 
There's  not  a  .lew-drop  on  the  flower, 

But  bears  the  impress,  Lord,  of  Thee. 

—  Mm.  AMELIA   '  ll'IK. 


The  bird  that  sings  on  highest  wing 
Builds  on  tin-  ground  her  lowly  nest; 

And  she  that  doth  most  sweetly  sing 
Sine>  in  tile  shade  when  all  things  rest. 

In  lark  and  nightingale  we  see 
What  honor  hath  humility. 

How  dreary  would  tin-  meadow  be 
In  the  pleasant  summer  light, 

Suppose  there  wasn't  a  bird  to  sing, 
And  suppose  the  grass  was  white! 


-Alice  Cart. 


Since  we  should  love  all  living  tilings, 

Around  us  to  be  found  ; 
I'll  even  try  to  love  the  worm 

That  craw  Is  along  the  ground. 


MODERN  METHODS. 


NOTES   OF  LESSOS   OK 


THE  CLAM   AND  THE  OYSTER. 


[The  salt-water  round  clam  or  quahog  is  taken  as  the 
illustration  for  this  lesson  merely  because  in  my  experi- 
ence it  lias  been  easiest  to  get.  If  you  iiuti  the  Long 
clam  more  accessible,  orlivingin  land  the  fresh-water 
clam,  use  that,  but  by  all  means  have  actual  specimens 
of  some  sort.  To  show  the  action  of  the  siphon  in  the 
living  fresh-water  animal  use  a  shallow  dish  of  any 
kind,  put  the  specimens  into  it  and  add  enough  water 
to  cover.  After  a  period  "I  quiet  yon  will  see  the 
"  foot"  and  the  siphon  extended.  Now  drop  a  little  ink 
or  bluing  carefully  near  the  extended  siphon  and  watch 
the  currents.  To  show  this  with  the  other  clams  you 
must  of  course  put  them  into  sea  water. 

The  parts  of  the  body  are  not  so  easy  to  make  out 
when  one  has  not  already  had  some  practice  at  dissec- 
tion but  by  doing  the  work  under  water  (which  floats 
the  membranes  apart  and  so  renders  them  more  easily 
studied),  following  the  description  and  the  illustra- 
tions, no  difficulty  will  probably  lie  felt  in  making  out 
the  chief  points  mentioned.] 

The  Shell — Valves. —  The  most  strikiug  part 
of  the  clam  is  not  the  animal  but  the  shell,  the 
house  in  which  the  animal  lives  and  so  we  will 
look  at  that  first.  When  cleaned  it  is  white. 
somewhat  convex  and  consists  of  two  equal  parts 
which  are  hinged  together  at  one  side  and  when 
freshly  taken  from  the  animal  these  two  parts  can 
be  closed  by  pressing  them  together  in  the  hands, 
but  on  removing  the  pressure  they  again  fly  open. 

These  are  the  doors,  or  valves,  as  they  are  called, 
of  the  house  and  because  there  tire  two  of  them 
the  shell  is  a  bi-valve,  a  term  used  for  all  similar 
shells  and  also  applied  to  the  animals  which  make 
and  inhabit  them. 

Ligament. —  Examining  the  hinged  side  we 
notice  fastened  to  it  a  dark  brownish,  very  tough 
substance  known  as  the  ligament.  When  this  is 
cut,  which  is  not  easy  to  do  —  or  torn  —  readily 
done  when  thoroughly  dry  —  the  valves  no  longer 
fly  open.  This  ligament  then  must  be  a  sort  of 
spring  put  there  not  to  shut  but  to  open  the  valves 
and  so  the  shell  of  our  clam  may  be  likened  to  a 
house  without  windows  but  with  doors  intended  to 


stay  open  by  means  of  a  spring.  (In  the  so-called 
long  clam  this  ligament  corresponds  in  position 
and  action  to  a  piece  of  strong  rubber  put  between 
the  two  parts  of  the  hinge  of  an  ordinary  door 
which  is  compressed  by  the  shutting  of  the  door 
and  forces  the  door  open  on  removing  the  pres- 
sure. See  if  it  holds  a  like  position  in  the  round 
clam  or  in  the  fresh-water  clam.) 

Lines  of  Growth. —  Look  now  at  the  out- 
side of  either  valve  and  notice  a.  series  of  lines, 
parallel  with  the  gracefully  curved  free  edge  of  the 
valve  and  hence  one  within  another  (concentric). 
(Feel  of  tin-  shell  then  see  what  it  is  that  makes  it 
rough).  These  concentric  lines  are  lines  ofgrotcth 
each  one  was  once  the  edge  of  the  shell  and  as  the 
animal  grew  it  added  another  and  another  line  of 
matter  so  as  to  keep  room  for  itself  inside. 

Muscle-scars; —  Pallial  Line. —  Look  next 
at  the  inside  of  a  valve.  Along  the  edge  is  a  rather 
broad  glossy  purplish  band  with  a  slight  depres- 
sion at  the  right  and  another  at  the  left.  These 
are  the  muscle-scars  and  each  marks  the  place 
where  a  muscle  was  fastened,  the  use  of  which  was 
to  shut  the  shell.      (See  Fig.   1  ) . 


The  line  markiug  the  inner  edge  of  the  purplish 
band  is  the  pallial  line;  to  this  was  attached  the 
part  of  the  animal  called  the  mantle. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


25 


Inside  of  this  line  the  rest  of  the  shell  is  a 
chalky  white. 

Material  of  the  Shell.—  Put  next  a  drop  of 
muriatic  acid  on  the  shell  as  you  did  in  the  case  of 
the  sea-urchin  and  the  coral  and  observe  whether 
the  same  effect  is  produced.  What  is  the  material 
of  which  the  shell  is  made? 


Gills. —  At  (j  are  two  thin  folds  of  membrane 
marked  with  fine  parallel  ridges  and  lying  one 
above  the  other.  By  means  of  these  the  clam 
breathes.  Special  organs  for  breathing  the  air 
contained  in  water  are  called  gills.  These  are  the 
clam's  Gills. 


Fn;. 


•RIliHT    VALVE    WITH    MANTLE    REMOVED. 


The  Animal  —  the  Mantle. —  Put  a  live 
clam  into  hot  water  for  a  short  time.  Thru  with 
the  aid  <>f  a  strong  knife  you  can  pry  open  the 
valves  and  running  the  point  of  the  knife  carefully 
along  the  inside  of  one  valve  separate  it  from  the 
animal.  Lifting  off  tin- now  separated  valve  we 
lind  a  thin  membrane,  which  lined  the  valve  and 
was  fastened  to  the  pallia!  line.  This  membrane 
is  the  mantle,  and  its  use  is  to  make  and  repair 
the  shell.  Cutting  this  carefully  away,  we  have 
something  like  Fig.  2. 

Adductor  Muscles  —  Siphon. —  At  each 
side  ( in  )  the  cut  end  of  the  pinkish  muscle  which 
by  its  shortening  shuts  the  valve.  These  are  the 
adductor  muscles,  the  scars  of  which  we  before 
noticed  on  the  inside  of  the  valve. 

On  the  left  side  (s)  a  fleshy  part,  capable  of 
considerable  extension  and  having  two  openings 
directed  toward  the  left.  This  is  the  siphon.  It  is 
much  more  prominent  in  the  long  clam  (Fi^.  3). 
Through  the  larger  of  the  openings,  water  with 
floating  bits  of  food  is  taken  in  by  the  clam  and 
through  the  other  opening  the  water  is  again 
discharged. 


Fn..  :; 


Body-"foot." — Lifting  up  the  two  gills  we 

see  the  thick  body  of  the  clam,  the  lower  right- 
hand  portion  of  which  can  be  extended  out  of  the 
shell  as  a  tongue-shaped  mass,  and  being  used  to 
move  the  animal  about  in  the  sand  or  mud  in  which 
it  lives  it  is  called  the  "foot."  Lifting  up  the 
body  next  we  find  under  that  two  gills  similar  to 
the  two  already  observed  and  beneath  them,  lining 
the  still  attached  valve  (ma,  Fig.  2)  the  other 
part  of  the  mantle,  showing  its  thickened,  dark- 
colored  aud  ruffed  outer  edge. 

The  Oyster. —  Compare  now  the  shell  of  the 
oyster  with  that  of  the  clam  and  note  that  the  two 
valves  are  not  alike  in  size.  one.  Larger  and  deeper 
than  the  other,  is  the  lower  or  left  valve  and  gen- 
erally bears  marks  on  the  outside  of  having  been 
attached  to  something;  the  other,  smaller  and 
flatter,  is  of  course  the  upper  or  right  valve. 
There  is  but  one  muscle-scar,  instead  of  two  as  in 
the  clam. 

Comparing  the  animals,  notice  the  mantle  aud 
the  gills.  There  is  no  siphon,  aud  no  foot.  The 
dark  portion  toward  the  hinge  coutains  the  stomach 
and  liver. —  the  blackish  part  being  mainly  liver. 
Near  it  is  also  the  mouth,  difficult,  however,  to 
find. 


26 


MODERN   METHODS. 


Structure. —  Compared  with  the  animals  we 
have  studied  before,  we  notice  that  the  clam  and  the 
oyster  are  not  made  up  of  ring-like  parts,  nor  of 
parts  radiating  from  a  centre,  but  that  they  are 
soft-bodied  animals  enveloped  in  a  bag-like  "  man- 
tle "  and  inclosed  in  a  hard,  limy  shell.  Such  ani- 
mals  are  called  Mollusks  or  Mollusca,  and  those 
mollusks  having  the  thin  leaf-like  gills,  as  the 
oyster  and  clam,  are  known  by  the  long  name  of 
LomellibrancJis  which  means,  very  nearly,  leaf- 
gills.  Because  they  have  no  distinct  head  they  are 
also  sometimes  called  in  the  books  Acephals,  mean- 
ing headless,  but  because  of  the  two  parts  to  the 
shell  it  may  be  easier  to  remember  them  simply  as 
bivalves. 

Kinds  of  Mollusks. — There  are  about  20,0(1(1 
different  kinds  of  Mollusks  of  which  number  about 
5000  are  bi-valves.  The  latter  range  from  tiny 
shells  to  the  giant  clam  Tridacna,  sometimes  five 
feet  across,  the  shell  alone  weighing  nearly  five 
hundred  pounds.  Some  are  fixed  permanently  to 
one  place  like  the  oyster ;  others,  as  the  clam, 
move  slowly  about,  still  others  as  the  scallop,  with 
considerable  rapidity.  Some  bore  into  solid  rock, 
others,  as  the  so-called  "  ship-worm"  which  is  not 
a  worm,  bore  into  wood. 

Besides  the  oyster  and  clam,  the  pecten  or  scal- 
lop, and  the  mussel  are  common  in  the  markets  of 
our  sea-port  cities. 

Where  Found. — Bivalves,  and  so  of  course 

Mollusks,  of  some  sort,  are  found  almost  every- 
where in  fresh  and  in  salt  water,  but  chiefly  in  the 
latter  and  as  a  rule  in  not  very  deep  water. 

Uses. —  The  oyster,  clam,  scallop,  and  mussel 
arc  used  for  food,  the  first  especially  being  cultU 
vated  for  this  purpose.  In  July  and  August  the 
oyster  lays  its  eggs  and  the  young  swim  about  for 
a  time  after  hatching  before  they  fasten  themselves 
to  objects  on  the  bottom.  In  from  two  to  four 
years  they  are  ready  for  market,  and  are  gathered 
by  being  scraped  from  the  bottom  with  a  dredge. 

The  clam  is  also  used  for  bait.  Among  other 
bivalves  the  pearl-oyster  yields  the  valued  pearls. 
Pearls  are  often  formed  in  the  common  oyster,  the 


clam,  and  the  fresh-water  clam,  those  from  the 
last-named  having  sometimes  a  money  value  which 
is  not  true  of  the  others.  These  pearls  are  formed 
by  grains  of  sand  or  other  particles  getting  be- 
tween the  mantle  and  the  shell  and  there  being 
covered  with  the  substance  which  the  mantle  se- 
cretes. The  shells  of  certain  bivalves  furnish  us 
with  the  material  called  mother-of-pearl  used  in 
making  buttons,  knife-handles  and  inlaid  work, 
while  the  shells  of  all  mollusks  can  be,  and  of 
many  are,  "burned"  for  quicklime. 


Fig.  4.— siphon  (s)  and  foot  (p)  extended. 


BLACK-BOARD     OUTLINE 

CLAM.                                OYSTER. 

The  Shell. 

valves, 
ligament, 
lines  of  growth, 
muscle-scars  (2). 
pallia!  line, 
material  of  shell. 

valves 

ligament. 

lines  of  growth. 

muscle-scar. 

pailial  line. 

material  of  shell. 

The  animal. 

'  mantle. 

adductor  muscles. 
siphon, 
gills. 

hotly, 
foot. 

structure. 

mantle, 
adductor  muscle. 

gills. 
body. 

structure. 

Kinds  of  M 

jllusks.     Where  four 

id.      Uses. 

Subjects  for  composition  work  will  be  suggested 
by  the  preceding  lessons,  which  see.  It  will  be 
well  to  have  the  descriptions  largely  comparative  ; 
the  ability  to  recognize  the  same  essential  thing 
under  different  forms  is  of  value  to  others  besides 
naturalists,  and  one  of  the  chief  uses  of  the  study 
of  natural  history  after  all  is  to  open  one's  eyes 
and  enable  one  to  see  things  straight. 

— F.  W.  Staebner. 


NATIRAL    HISTORY. 


27 


XOTKS  (iF  LESSON  ON 


THE   COMMON   SNAIL. 


The  Shell  and  its  Parts. 

VS  damp,  shady  places  in  the  woods  you 
will  find  him,  carrying  liis  bouse  upon 
his  back  and  leaving  a  glistening  trail 
behind.  But  perhaps  you  have  only 
found  his  empty  house,  so  we  will  look 
at  that  first. 
See  how  it  is  made  of  coils  or  twists 
(whorls')  each  whorl  smaller  than  the  one  below. 
These  whorls,  together,  form  the  spire,  although  the 
spire  may  not  be  very  tall.  To  borrow  from  the 
peaceful  Quakers,  we  might  call  it  a  "steeple- 
house."  At  the  end  of  the  largest  whorl  is  the 
door-way  or  aperture. 

What  a  delicate  brown  the  house  is  colored. 
though  if  the  owner  has  been  dead  some  time  it 
may  be  nearly  white  because  the  paint  has  worn 
off.  You  see  the  owner  keeps  it  in  repair  while 
lie  is  alive. 


foaming  (effervescence  is  the  word)  where  the  acid 
is  applied  you  may  conclude  it  to  lie  limestone  — 
you  may  call  it  limy.  (Have  you  ever  seen  ob- 
jects made  by  creatures  other  than  man  composed 
of  similar  substance?      Where?) 

This  limestone  house  is  the  shell  of  a  snail  and 
being  all  in  one  piece  it  is  univalve.  (Do  you  re- 
member what  we  called  the  shells  of  the  oyster 
and  clam  which  are  in  —  how  many  pieces?) 


THE    GARDEN    8NAII-. 

Observe  the  tine  parallel  lines  all  over  the  out- 
side. (What  an-  they  parallel  with?)  These  are 
the  lines  •>/  grototh.  This  curious  house  is  built 
from  the  top  (apex)  of  the  spire  downward  by 
adding    layer    after    layer    around    the      aperture. 

Think  of  enlarging  your  house  by  extending  your 
door-way!  You  can  find  out  what  the  building 
material  is  by  putting  a  drop  of  acid  (muriatic 
or  nitric)   on  it.     If   you    notice    a    babbling   or 


ANATOMY    OF  THE    COMMON    UAKllEN    SNAIL. 

The  shaded  parts  are  the  Stomach  and  Intestine!;  the  tingle  lines 
are  X<  rri.<:  tin  <U>H'  >l  lints  }U<">il  eessels. 

The  Animal  and  his  Parts. —  If  the  owner 

is  not  at  home  we  must  find  one  who  is.  Look 
about  in  the  same  spot  you  found  this  for  another. 
Leave  him  in  quiet  a  while  ;  whin  he  thinks  it  safe 
he  will  come  out.  When  he  is  out  (he  cannot 
come  out  entirely  and  leave  his  house)  notice  his 
soft,  grayish  body ?  (Has  he  a  head?  How  do 
you  know  ?) 

At  one  end  of  his  body  are  two  pairs  of  little, 
movable  fleshy  stalks  or  ••  horns,"  one  pair  much 
longer  than  the  other.  (Which  pair?)  Touch 
one  of  them.  How  quickly  they  are  pulled  in  and 
seem  to  melt  into  the  rest  of  the  body.  These 
"  horns  "  are  the  tentacles  or  feelers,  and  because 
they  can  be  withdrawn,  as  you  saw.  they  are  re- 
tractile. The  little  black  speck  at  the  end  of  each 
longer  tentacle  is  an  eye 

On  the  under  side  of  this  end  of  the  body  is  a 
little  opening  —  the  month.  In  this  mouth  is  a 
tiny  strip  covered  with  minute   points    that   serve 


28 


MODERN    METHODS. 


as  teeth.     This  strip  is  spoken  of  as  the  "lingual 
ribbon  "  or  in  some  books  as  the  "  odontophore  " — 


LLNOUAL    TEETH    OF    SNAIL    {AcllHtlMI.. 

1.  L,  lateral  raws:  c,  central  r<ncs. 

meaning  tooth-bearer,  and  by  it*  motion  backward 
and  forward,  over  an  object,  the  snail  files  off  his 
food.     (You  cannot  see  this  well  without  a  micro- 


snails,  the  smallest  no  larger  than  the  head  of  a 
pin  —  the  largest  over  a  foot  in  length. 

The  eyes  vary  in  position  in  different  snails,  in 
some  being  at  the  base  of  the  tentacles  instead  of 
at  the  end.  There  are  variations  in  position  and 
size  also  of  other  parts.  The  shell  is  in  some 
large  enough  to  contain  the  whole  body,  while  in 
others  it  may  be  very  small  or  entirely  wanting  — 
these  latter  are  known  as  Slugs. 

When  the  shell  is  held  spire  upward,  open  end 
toward  the  person,  the  aperture  is    in  some  cases 


SXAILS  AND  SLUGS. 


scope, but  you  can  give  him  a  toadstool  or  the  ten- 
der leaves  of  lettuce  or  cabbage  and  watch  the 
motion  in  eating) . 

On  the  middle  of  the  back  and  covered  by  the 
shell  is  the  part  known  as  the  mantle  which  fur- 
nishes the  material  for  and  adds  to  the  shell.  On 
the  right  side  and  just  under  the  shell  is  also  the 
breathing-hole. 

The  whole  under  side  of  the  body  being  used  in 
moving  over  the  ground  is  for  that  reason  termed 
the  foot.  (Are  there  any  other  feet?)  Observe 
how  rapidly  the  snail  moves  and  you  will  under- 
stand what  is  meant  by  a  "  snail's  pace." 

Other  Snails. —  There  are  very  many  kinds  of 


to  the  right,  in  others  to  the  left.  The  shell  is 
sometimes  gaily  colored  or  marked  with  ridges. 

Where  Found. —  Snails  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  in  moist  places  on  laud,  in 
rivers  and  ponds,  and  in  the  sea. 

Habits. —  Our  common  snail  lives  on  decaying 
leaves  and  other  vegetable  matter,  and  during  or 
just  after  rainy  weather  can  be  readily  found 
crawling  about  in  suitable  situations.  The  young 
hatch  from  eggs  which  are  laid  in  June,  and  conn- 
out  with  a  tiny  shell  of  a  little  more  than  one  turn 
or  whorl.  In  Autumn  it  creeps  away  and  with- 
drawing into  its  shell, seals  the  opening  by  a  layer 
of  slimy  mucus,  which  on  drying    forms    a    thin, 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


29 


transparent,   parchment-like     membrane,     beliiml 

which  it   rests   during    the    winter    (the    naturalist 
-ays  it  hibernates)  to  awake  again  in  the  spring. 

While  many  snails  live  on  vegetation,  some 
feed  on  animal  substances.  While  some  close  the 
opening  to  their  shells  with  a  thin,  tough  skin, 
others  fasten  up  with  a  stiff,  limy  door   called  an 

'.y„   mil  II  ill. 

Slugs  are  chiefly  active  at  night,  doing  sufficient 
damage  in  the  garden  to  lie  considered  a  nuisance. 
When  young  they  are  known  to  climb  trees  in 
search  of  food  and  occasionally  let  themselves 
down  at  more  than  a  ••snail's  pace."  by  a  thread 
of  sticky  mucus  with  which  they  are  lavishly  pro- 
vided somewhat  after  the  manner  of  spiders,  but. 
unlike  spiders,  they  cannot  draw  themselves  up 
again. 

Uses. —  In  Europe,  especially  France  and 
Italy,  several  kinds  of  snails  are  eaten  and  are 
regularly  sold  in  the  markets  for  that  purpose. 
They  may  sometimes  be  seen  pictured  on  the  sign- 
board-, of  restaurants. 

The  ancient  Romans  had  snail-preserves,  where 
these  animals  were  raised  for  the  table,  and  in  the 
buried  city  of  Pompeii  may  be  seen  heaps  of  shells, 
the  remains  of  funeral  feasts  in  the  cemetery. 

Our  common  snail  is  edible,  as  are  probably 
many  others. 

Classification. —  Snails  belong  to  the  great 
group  of  soft-bodied,  uujointed  animals  known  as 
Mollusks.  and  because  of  the  possession  of  a  dis- 
tinct head,  and  the  use  of  the  under  surface  of  the 
body  as  a  creeping-organ  or  ••foot"  to  that  sec- 
tion of  mollusks  called  Gasteropoda  (literally  belly- 
footed.  )  Other  familiar  gasteropods  are  the  Tiger- 
cowries,  whose  shells  were  once  so  common  on  the 


parlor    mantel    or   the    what-not,    Ear-shells    and 
Cone-shells,  also  occasionally  seen. 

Suggestions. —  This  subject  may  be  used  as 
a  composition  exercise  before  being  regularly  given 
as  a  lesson,  and  again  afterward. 

Have  pupils  collect  land-snails  by  searching  in 
damp  situations  among  leaves,  rotten  logs,  etc., 
in  a  hard-wood  grove,  preferably  on  a  hillside;  or, 
fresh-water  snails  in  ponds  and  ditches,  on  the 
stems  and  leaves  of  aquatic  plants  ;  or,  if  near  the 
sea-coast,  salt-water  snails  at  low  tide  on  rocks  or 
among  sea-weed.  Keep  the  land-snails  in  a  fruit- 
jar  with  damp  earth  ;  the  fresh-water  kinds  in  a 
jar  of  water,  the  sea-snails  in  a  jar  of  salt-water. 

Beginning  with  the  shell,  the  requirement  may 
be  to  write  out  all  that  can  be  seen  by  simple  ex- 
amination, asking  no  questions.  Next  day  give  a 
lesson  on  the  she'd.  Then  have'  similar  treatment 
of  the  living  animals.  Follow  this  by  the  lesson. 
Develop  the  lesson,  of  course,  by  questions. 
Where  any  experiment  is  to  lie  performed  or  ob- 
servation made,  have  the  pupils  make  such  experi- 
ment or  observation.  State  only  what  they  can- 
not discover  for  themselves.  Now  the  composi- 
tions may  be  rewritten  with  tin  added  knowledge 
incorporated.  The  pupils  might  also  be  asked  to 
bring  such  ornamental  shells  as  they  may  be  able 
to  obtain  for  written  work  in  comparison.  Finally, 
comparison  of  the  snail  with  the  oyster  or  the  clam, 
with  the  lobster  or  the  crab,  with  the  ant  or  the 
bee  may  lie  made. 

Further  information  may  be  gotten  from  Morse's 
admirable  First  Bunk  in  Zoology  and  from  a  popu- 
lar article  in  Scribner's  Monthly  Vol.  XVII, 
entitled  :  In  a  Snailery. 


THE   COWBY. 


30 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


31 


NOTES   OFLESSOy  OX 

THE  LOBSTER  AND  THE  CRAB. 


I.  — THE   LOBSTER. 

JAY  the  lobster  back  ap.  Its  color  is 
dark  greenish  <>v  greenish-black  often 
mottled  with  reddish-yellow,  but  vary- 
ing considerably  in  shade  ;  after-  being 

boiled  it  is  bright  red.  Scratch  the 
outside  with  a  pin  or  your  finger-nail  —  you 
find  it  hard.  Note  that  the  body  is  long 
aud  nearly  cylindrical.  Observe  two  distinct 
parts  commonly  called  ••head"  and  ••tail"  re- 
spectively. The  "head"  is  all  one  piece,  but  on 
it  is  a  more  or  less  plainly-marked  groove  running 
downwards  and  forwards  each  side  from  the  back. 
All  in  front  of  this  line  is  head  and  all  back  of  it 
corresponds  to  the  separate  part  we  call  thorax, 
when  studying  the  bee.  But  since  head  and  tho- 
rax are  here  merely  divided  by  a  curved  line  we 
call  the  piece  head-thorax,  or  cephalo-tliorax,  mean- 
ing just  the  same  thing.  The  "tail,"  made  up  of 
ring-,  is  the  abdomen.      (Figs.  1  and  ."> )  • 

Head-thorax.  —  In  the  middle  line  of  the 
cephalo-tliorax  i-  a  sharp  projection  extending 
forward  beyond  the  body,  the  rostrum  or  beak. 
On  either  side  of  this  at  its  base  is  a  little  mov- 
able stem  or  stalk  with  a  rounded  black  spot  on 
its  end.  This  black  spot  is  an  eye.  made  up  of 
many  smaller  eyes,  therefore  a  compound-eye. 
The  stalk  supporting  it  is  an  eye-stalk.  Under 
the  eves  is  a  pair  of  long  many-jointed  feelers  or 
antenna},  and  in  front  of  the  eyes  a  similar  pair  of 
shorter  antenna-  or  antennules,  but  while  each  an- 
tenna-is a  single  long,  whip-like  object,  each  anten- 
nule  is  forked  so  that  there-  seems  to  be  a  pair  on 
each  side. 

Looking  DOW  a  little  below  the  antenna-  in  front 
part  of  head-thorax  and  working  toward  the  under 
side  of  the  body.  Figs.  2.  •">.  we  find  a  pair  of  hard. 
tooth-like  nippers,  opening  from  side  to  side  and 
touching  when  shut.  These  cut  the  food  and  are 
the   jaws   or    mandibles.     Between    them    is   the 


mouth.  Under  them  are  two  pairs  of  thin  flaps 
Lying  close  together  which  help  the  mandibles  in 
preparing  the  food;  they  are  the  lesser  jaws  or 
maxilla}.  Below  these  we  find  three  pairs  of  or- 
gans which,  especially  the  last  pair  —  look  a  little 
like  feet  and  yet  also  help  in  eating.  They  are 
the  jaw  feet  or  maxillipeds.  ( All  these  parts,  man- 
dibles to  maxillipeds,  are  so  closely  laid  against 
the  body  aud  so  overlap  that  it  is  perhaps  easier 
to  examine  them  in  reverse  order  beginning  with 
the  maxillipeds).  Now  we  are  quite  on  the  under 
side  of  the  body  and  have  before  us  a  pair  of 
jointed  limbs  to  which  the  great  claws  or  pincers 
{chela})  are  attached.  Following  these  are  four 
more  pairs  much  like  those  just  described,  yet 
each  succeeding  pair  differing  more  and  more 
from  the  first,  but  all  plainly  intended  for  walk- 
ing, that  is.  all  but  the  first,  which  bearing  the 
great  claws  is  rather  a  pair  of  weapons  than  feet, 
but  all  five  pairs  are  commonly  called  walking- 
feet. 

Lifting  up  the  overlapping  edge  of  each  side  of 
the  cephalo-thorax  we  find  attached  to  the  bag  - 
of  the  legs  a  series  of  light-colored  feathery  parts 
each  consisting  of  a  stem  aud  fringe  of  soft 
material.     These  are  the  breathing-organs  or  gills. 

The  lobster  breathes  air  but  he  gets  it  out  of 
the  water.  If  you  draw  a  tumbler  of  water  and 
set  it  aside  in  a  warm  room,  in  an  hour  or  less 
you  will  see  on  the  inside  of  tin-  glass  tiny  bubbles 
of  air  which  have  come  from  the  water.  All 
water  naturally  contains  some  air.  A  great  many 
animals  that  live  in  water  breathe  by  means  of 
gills.     Perhaps  you  know  of  some. 

Abdomen.  —  Examining  the  abdomen  we 
find  it  made  up  of  six  quite  similar  ring-like  pieces 

or  segments,  and  a  differently  shaped  end  piece 
called  the  telson.  On  the  under  side  of  the 
abdomen  each  ring  bears  a  pair  of  flatfish  ap- 
pendages    used     in    swimming.       These     are    the 


32 


MODERN   METHODS. 


—Jt/H'trti/rL , 

-AntoTjiults 
.F.y^ 

.   Antenna 


..Green,  GloTtd. 


Ctraam,  -oesophageal/ 

.Gullet 

.  ~Dphxhabr*i£-  Artery 


...CarvbLO£,  Ossicle, 

. .  Pyloric,  diir-isumrof 
Stomach, 


SternaL  Artery 


Va*  Tieferw 


Superior  AbdomznaZ^ 

Artoy 


Jrit»stxru 


In/error  Abdorn&iaL 

Artery 


'-  ^dbdomznat  qanqbut- 


NATURAL    HISTORY 


33 


swimming-feet  or  swbnvmerets.  The  last  pair  of 
Bwimmerets  is  much  larger  and  broader  than  any 
of  tiie  others,  and  each  consists  of  two  Maps  which 
can  be  spread  so  as  to  form  with  the  telson,  a 
fan-shaped  "tail-fin"  with  which  the  lobster  can 
swim  very  swiftly  backwards.     ( Fig.  3). 


anfainule 


Pig.  8. 

Internal  Structure.  —  Some  other  curious 
things  about  the  lobster  you  may  like  to  know. 
The  food  torn  by  the  jaws  goes  from  the  mouth 
through  a  short  tube  into  the  stomach,  which  is  a 
soft  bag  stretched  over  a  hard  frame  and  contains 
teeth — stomach  or  gastric-teeth.  You  can  readily 
find  the  stomach  as  it  takes  up  the  larger  part  of 
the  forward  end  of  the  cephalo-tborax.  (See  Fig. 
2).      It  is  often  called  the  ••  lady." 

The  heart  lies  inside  the  back  along  the  middle 
line  of  the  head-thorax,  and  forces  the  nearly 
colorless  blood  to  different  parts.  The  blood  is 
gathered  up  along  the  under  side  of  the  body,  and 
after  passing  through,  the  gills,  returns  to  the 
heart.      A  constant   supply   of  water  is    made   to 


wash  the  gills,  partly  by  the  motion  of  a  little 
SCOOp,  the  gill-bailer,  partly  by  the  movements  of 
the  walking-feet  to  which  we  found  the  gills 
attached. 

The  ear  is  a  little  pit  at  the  base  of  the  an- 
tennules. 

As  the  body  of  our  lobster  is  composed  of 
jointed  pieces  it  belongs  to  the  group  of  animals 
called  Articulates,  or,  more  commonly  now  be- 
cause it  also  has  jointed  limbs.  Arthropods  or  Ar- 
thropoda.  As  head  and  thorax  are  united  ami 
the  whole  outside  is  a  hard  crust  it  belongs  to  that 
division  of  Arthropods  known  as  Crustacea  or 
Crustaceans. 

Where  Found.  —  The  lobster  lives  in  the 
ocean  near  the  coast,  preferring  rocky  bottom,  but 
also  found  where  it  is  sandy  or  gravelly.  Our 
lobster  is  common  on  the  Atlantic  coast  from  New 
Jersey  northward. 

Habits.  —  The  lobster  can  swim  rapidly  back- 
wards or  forwards,  and  can  also  walk  and  climb 
under  water.  It  eats  other  animals  alive  and 
dead,  that  is,  it  is  carnivorous.  When  a  limb  is 
lost  by  accident  another  grows  in  its  place.  Lob- 
sters hatch  from  eggs,  which  are  little  globular 
bodies,  nearly  black,  and  about  as  large  as  cab- 
bage seeds,  and  which  are  attached  iu  great  num- 
bers to  the  swimmerets  of  the  mother  chiefly  in 
spring  ami  early  summer.  As  the  lobster  grows 
his  hard  coat  gets  too  small  for  him,  so  at  a  cer- 
tain time  in  warm  weather  the  body  loosens  itself 
from  its  covering,  this  splits  along  the  back,  and 
the  lobster  pulls  himself  out.  He  has  moulted. 
(What  other  animals  moult?)  The  lobster  is  now 
soft,  and  to  escape  his  enemies,  who  would  be 
glad  of  such  a  tender  morsel,  he  goes  into  hiding 
till  his  outside  has  again  hardened.  He  moults 
often  at  first,  but  only  once  a  year  after  he  is 
full-grown. 

Kinds  of  Lobsters.  —  There  are  many  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  lobster-like  animals  most  of  which 
live  in  the  sea,  hut  one  sort  lives  in  some  rivers 
and  lakes.  This  is  the  fresh  water-lobster,  craw- 
fish  or   eray-rish,  sometimes   wrongly  called   crab. 

—  F.  w  STAEBNF.R. 


34 


MODERN    METHODS. 


Fig.  i.-iui.\h.i  r  v it 


FIG.   ">.—  SPIDER-CRAB. 


Flci.  3  —  THORNBVCK-1   It  IB 


FIU.   1.— EDIBLE  CRAB   OF    EUROPE 


FIG.  4. — COMMON-CRAB. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


35 


NOTES  OF  LESSON  ON 


THE  CRAB. -II. 


HK  crab  at  first  sight  looks  very 
nillike  a  lobster.  Holding  it  as  in 
Fig.  1,  we  note  that  it  is  short  and 
Battened,  thai  its  color  is  a  dark 
green  or  bluish-green,  and  trying  it  with 
a  thumb-nail  we  find  it  hard  outside. 
All  the  upper  side  is  cephaio-thorax. 
Turn  the  crab  over.  Tightly  pressed  against  the 
body,  in  a  groove  in  which  it  snugly  fits,  is  a 
jointed  Hap.  Pulling  it  out  you  find  it  fastened 
at  its  broader  end  to  the  cephalo-thorax.  This  is 
the  abdomen  ;  count  the  number  of  pieces  of  which 
it  consists.  Then  see  how  many  of  the  following- 
parts  you  can  find. 


attached  to  cephalo-thorax. 


pair    of  stalked  eyes 
'•       ••  antennules 

•■  antennas 
"      ■■  mandibles 

2  pair~  ■•  maxillae 

3  "      ••  maxillipeds 
pair    "   pincers 

i  pairs  •■  walking-feel 

6    "      ■■  swimmerets  attached  to  abdomen. 

AVe  find  the  crab,  although  apparently  so  differ- 
ent, on  the  whole  very  much  like  the  lobster. 
Animals  that  are  like  one  another  in  structure  we 
] nit  together ;  those  most  alike  being  placed  nearest 
ther.  This  is  called  classifying.  We  have 
already  classified  the  lobster.  The  crab,  being 
like  it  in  having  the  body  made  up  of  jointed 
pieces  to  which  are  fastened  jointed  appendages 
belongs  to  the  same  group  Artliropoda,  and  because 
of  its  hard  outer  crust  to  the  same  division  C)"US- 
tacea*  The  lobster  and  crab  both  having  ten 
walking-feet  belong  1"  the  same  division  of  the 
Crustacea,  the  Decapod,  or  ten-footed  Crustaceans 
Again,  because  of  it-  seemingly  shorter  abdomen  or 


•  The  possession  ot  the  bard  outer  crust  is  not  sufficient 
alone  to  dlstinguisb  Crustaceans  since  other  Arthropods  often 
have  the  outside  of  tlie  ho.iy  bard.  Crustaceans  must  also 
have  more  than  four  pair-  ot  locomotive  organs,  ami  two 
pairs  of  attentue,  and  then  there  are  exception-. 


••  tail."  the  crab  and  others  like  it  are  called  Short- 
tailed  decapod  eructaceans,  while  tin'  lolister  is  put 
witli  the  Long-tailed  division. 

You  must  not  suppose  it  is  always  easy  to  clas- 
sify animals.  Some  crabs,  for  example,  you  might 
not  know  whether  to  call  long-tailed  Or  short-tailed. 
In  such  cases  the  naturalist  uses  his  judgment  and 
puts  them  with  those  they  most  resemble  in  other 
respects.  If  you  were  told  to  take  all  the  books 
out  of  a  case  and  put  the  large  ones  in  one  pile  and 
all  the  small  ones  in  another,  you  might  meet  with 
some  about  which  you  would  find  it  difficult  to 
decide  whether  they  ought  to  he  called  large  or 
small,  so  you  would  have  to  use  your  judgment  and 
put  them  with  the  pile  they  most  resembled.  Some 
one  else  might  not  agree  with  you  in  placing  the 
doubtful  books  where  you  did.  So  small  differen- 
ces in  animals  bother  naturalists  very  much,  and 
they  try  to  overcome  the  difficulty  by  proposing 
other  arrangements,  and  this  is  one  reason  why 
you  find  such  different  classifications  in  different 
books. 

Where  Found. —  Crabs  are  found  mainly  in 
the  sea,  in  shallow  water,  but  some  live  in  fresh 
water  and  some,  in  the  warmer  regions  of  the 
globe,  entirely  on  laud.  These  hitter,  however, 
visit  the  water  to  lay  their  eggs. 

Habits  of  Crabs. —  Some  crabs  swim  well, 
others  poorly,  but  all  can  walk  backward,  forward 
or  sideways,  often  very  rapidly.  Some  climb 
well.  Most  crabs,  perhaps  all,  eat  animal  matter 
of  some  son,  either  attacking  living  animals  or 
feeding  on  carrion  :  some  eat  mainly  vegetable 
substances.  Crabs,  like  lobsters,  have  the  power 
of  growing  a  new  limb  if  one  should  be  lost  in  any 
way.  Crabs  hatch  from  eggs  which  are  carried 
on  the  swimmerets  of  the  mother. 

The  young  are  at  first  very  unlike  the  old.  SO 
unlike  that  some  of  them  have  been  described  as 
different  animals.      Animals   which    pass    through 


M 


MODERN   METHODS. 


Fig.  6.— cocoanut-crab 


FlG.  ".—HERMIT-CRAB 


FIG.  8.— HORSE-SHOE-CRAB. 


FIG.  9.— THE    HORSE-SHOE-CRAB,  UN  DER    SURFACE 
SHOWING    JAWS. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


37 


great  changes  iu  form  to  reach  the  adult  state  are 
said  to  undergo  a  metamorphosis.  Many  creatures 
besides  crabs  do  this.  Can  you  think  of  any? 
During  growth  crabs  moult  several  times,  becom- 
ing each  time  more  like  the  full-grown  animal. 
The  edible  crab  (Fig.  1)  just  after  shedding  his 
crust  is  sold  as  a  delicacy  in  summer  under  the 
name  of  "soft-shell"  or  "  shedder-crab. "  The 
illustration  shows  the  edible  crab  of  Europe  ;  the 
American  edible  crab  is  essentially  a  swimmer  and 
has  the  (undermost  pair  of  feet  flattened.  At 
one  stage  of  growth  crabs  resemble  lobsters. 
(Fig.  2). 

Kinds  of  Crabs. —  There  are  many  kinds  of 
crabs  ;  some  are  only  a  fraction  of  an  inch  across. 
and  from  this  they  vary  to  those  which,  with  legs 
spread,  cover  a  space  of  more  than  a  yard  square. 
One  Japanese  crab  measures  over  ten  feet  between 
the  outspread  pincers,  but  the  body  is  relatively 
small.  One  of  the  smallest  is  the  little  Pea-crab 
or  Oyster-crab  of  ten  found  iu  oysters  within  whose 
shell  it  lives.  A  curious  crab  is  the  Fiddler-crab. 
whose  tight  pincer  is  very  much  larger  than  the 
other,  and  when  this  is  closed  upon  the  front  of  the 
body  lie  appears  a  little  like  a  violinist  ready  to 
perform  on  his  fiddle.  He  is  also  called  Soldier  crab 
and  ■•  Calling-crab,"  the  latter,  because  when  scutt- 
ling over  the  mud  he  waves  his  great  claw  aloft  as 
if  calling  or  beckoning  to  some  one.  Another 
interesting  fellow  is  the  Hermit-crab  (Fig.  7)  who, 
having  only  the  cephalo-thorax  hard,  protects  his 
abdomen  by  •■  backing  *'  into  an  empty  snail  shell. 
leaving  only  his  antennae,  big  claws  and  first  pairs 
of  feet  sticking  out.  When  he  outgrows  his  house 
which  he  carries  around  with  him,  he  leaves  it  and 
hunts  up  another.  Stranger  still  is  the  so-called 
Horse-shoe  (Figs.  8  and  9)  or  King-crab,  common 
on  our  Atlantic  coast,  which,  however,  is  not  really 
a  crab  at  all. 

There  are  some  queer  crabs  with  long  thin  legs 
known  as  spider  crabs.  (Fig.  .">).  They  have  a 
remarkable  habit  of  getting  under  a  sponge,  forc- 
ing it  open,  and  so  getting  it  fixed  upon  their 
spiny  backs.  Of  course  the  fish  that  saw  a  loose 
spouge  rolling  along  towards  it  would  never  dream 


there  was  danger  in  it ;  but  so  it  is,  and  the  spider- 
crab  gets  a  meal  without  much  trouble. 

Somewhat  similar  to  the  spider-crab  is  the  thorn- 
back  (Fig.  3)  whose  shell  is  thickly  covered  with 
spines  and  knobs  of  various  sizes. 

It  used  to  be  stated  that  the  cocoanut-crab  (Fig. 
(>)  was  in  the  habit  of  climbing  the  cocoanut  palms, 
picking  the  fruit,  throwing  it  to  the  ground,  and 
then  breaking  the  shells  to  get  at  the  kernels.  The 
climbing  powers  of  this  crab,  however,  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  observed  by  any  reliable  person. 
You  have  sometimes  seen  iu  fruiterers'shops  the 
cocoanut  with  its  thick,  fibrous  overcoat  on —  of 
the  substance  of  which  cocoanut  matting  and  door- 
mats are  made.  The  cocoanut-crab  tears  this  fibre 
off  the  fallen  fruit,  and  gets  to  the  end  of  the  nut, 
where  are  the  three  smooth  pits,  the  "  mon- 
key's eyes  and  nose."  This  crab  has  two  pairs  of 
pincers  —  the  usual  heavy  pair  and  a  thin  small 
pair.  With  his  heavy  claws  he  hammers  at  one  of 
the  "monkey's  eyes"  until  he  has  broken  it 
through  ;  he  then  inserts  one  of  the  small  nippers, 
and  extracts  a  portion  of  the  cocoanut  flesh,  which 
he  eats.  And  so  he  becomes  fat  and  enticing  food 
for  the  natives,  who  set  out  in  parties  to  hunt  him. 

Besides  feasting  so  daintily,  the  cocoanut-crab 
likes  to  take  his  rest  cosily  :  so  he  digs  out  a  deep 
cave  beneath  the  roots  of  a  tree,  and  iu  it  he  lays 
a  thick,  soft  bed  of  the  finest  cocoanut-fibres,  care- 
fully selected,  on  which  he  reposes. 

There  are  other  land-crabs  beside  the  cocoauut- 
crab.  There  is  one  iu  the  West  Indies,  who  makes 
his  home  chiefly  in  the  forests  far  inland,  living  in 
holes.  In  the  rainy  season  this  species  quit  their 
holes  and  getting  iu  enormous  companies  make  their 
way  straight  for  the  shore.  Nothing  but  broad 
rivers  can  stop  them,  and  they  do  a  vast  amount  of 
damage  on  the  way. 

Uses. —  Have  you  ever  eaten  lobster  or  crab? 
Then  you  know  what  some  crustaceans  are  good 
for.  and  will  not  lie  surprised  to  hear  that  thous- 
ands of  people  iu  the  United  States  are  busy  catch- 
ing, preparing  and  selling  these  creatures.  If 
your  home  is  in  Boston   or    New  York,  or   some 


38 


MODERN    METHODS. 


other  city  near  the  Atlantic,  you  may  also  have 
seen  in  the  fish  markets  shrimps,  which  are  relatives 
of  the  lobster  and  crab. 

Crustaceans  are  also  useful  by  acting  as  scaven- 
gers.    How? 

How  Captured?  —  Crabs  and  lobsters  are 
caught  in  traps,  which  are  arched  cages  made  of 
netting  strengthened  with  hoops  of  wood  or  iron 
and  having  an  opening  on  each  of  two  sides.  These 
are  called  "  lobster-pots."  They  are  baited  with 
dead  fish  and  sunk  in  the  proper  places,  their  posi- 
tion being  marked  by  a  float.  The  crustacean 
easily  gets  into  these  traps,  but  not  out. 

Suggestions  and  Notes. —  In  teaching  this, 
as  in  teaching  all  lessons,  tell  as  little  as  possible. 
Draw  out  by  judicious  questioning.  For  example, 
in  beginning  do  not  tell  the  color,  the  pupil  ought 
to  be  able  to  tell  i/ou.  So  with  every  other  point. 
Tell  only  such  facts  as  the  pupils  do  not  know  and 
cannot  readily  find  out.  When  you  come  to  the 
crab  have  the  pupils  in  the  same  way  see  and  tell 
you  the  various  parts  from  the  specimen,  if  you 
have  such  (and  you  ought  to  have  at  least  one)  or 
from  a  drawing  previously  made.  Make  a  list  of 
these  on  the  board  side  by  side  with  those  of  the 
lobster,  and  then,  with  this  before  them,  ask  the 
pupils  whether  on  the  whole  the  crab  is  like  or 
unlike  the  lobster.  Then  you  can  ask  for  the 
points  in  which  it  differs,  or  saying  nothing  about 
these,  let  them  form  a  subject  for  composition  — 
' '  How  the  Crab  differs  from  the  Lobster  "  or  "  Why 
the  Crab  isn't  a  Lobster."  Of  course  the  less 
obvious  parts  you  will  omit  with  younger  pupils. 
The  amount  that  is  taught  is  of  less  account  than 
the  way  in  which  it  is  taught.  A  complete  com- 
parative list  would  be  something  as  follows  : 

THE  LOBSTER.  THE  CRAB. 

Color,  dark  greenish.  dark  greenish. 

General  form,  long,  cylindrical.        broad,  tiattish, 

Main    f  neac'-thoraxorcephalo-       cephalo-thorax. 

Parts   \      thorax- 

'  (.abdomen  (7  pieces).  abdomen  (7  pieces). 


THE   LOBSTER. 


THE   CRAB. 


pair  stalked  eyes. 
"   antennules. 
"   antenna' 
"   mandibles. 
2  pairs  maxillae. 


pair  stalked  eyes. 
'•   antennules. 
"   antenna:. 
"  mandibles. 
Other   .    2  pairs  maxilla-.  2  pairs  maxillae. 

Parts.      3     "  jaw  feetormaxillipeds  3    "  maxillipeds. 
pair  pincers.  pair  pincers. 

4  pairs  walking  feet.  4  pairs  feet, 

5  "     swimming-feet  or      6     "  swimmerets. 
swimmerets . 

If  you  live  within  a  hundred  miles  of  the  Atlan- 
tic you  will  know  where  to  get  specimens  of  lob- 
sters and  crabs.  If  you  live  farther  off  you  can, 
probably,  at  times,  get  boiled  lobsters,  and  by 
leaving  a  special  order  at  your  fish- market  get 
fresh  specimens.  If  crayfish  are  accessible  use 
these,  and  by  all  means  have  some  alive  in  a  jar  of 
water ;  put  in  with  them  some  of  the  little  snails 
found  where  you  get  the  crayfish  and  they  will 
serve  as  food  for  the  latter.  Your  boys  will  be 
glad  to  catch  all  these  for  you. 

Appended  are  a  few  subjects  for  composition; 
these  will  suggest  others  to  you.  If  you  have 
given  the  previous  lessons  in  this  series  make  this 
work  comparative  as  much  as  possible. 

1.  Describe  a  lobster  —  size,  color,  number  and 
shapes  of  legs,  form,  size  and  names  of  other  parts; 
anything  else  you  can  see. 

2.  Describe  a  crab  in  the  same  way. 

3.  Describe  the  different  things  a  lobster  can  do, 
what  he  eats,  where  he  is  found,  what  he  is  good  for 
and  how  he  is  caught. 

4.  Combine  1  and  3  and  tell  all  you  know  about  the 
lobster. 

5.  Write  a  complete  description  of  the  crab. 

(i.  Compare  the  lobster  and  the  crab,  mentioning 
first  the  points  in  which  they  are  alike,  then  those  in 
which  they  differ. 

The  teacher  will  find  further  information  in  the 
following  books:  Huxley,  The  Crayfish;  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,  articles  Crustacea,  Crab; 
Science  Guide  No.  VII.,  Boston  Soc.  Natural  His- 
tory, Worms  and  Crustacea  ;  Scribner's  Monthly, 
June,  1881  (Vol  22,  p.  209),  The  Lobster  at 
Home,  an  entertaining  account  of  the  industrial 
side  of  the  subject. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


39 


Fang  op  Spideb. 


Foot  of  Smuek. 


Spinning  Apparatus  op  thb 
Spider  (greatly  magnified). 


NOTES  OF  LESSON  ON 

SPIDERS. 


Long  before  man 
had  learned  to  weave 
cotton  or  flax  or  silk 
there  were  industrious  lit- 
tle weavers  in  the  world, 
without  visible  machinery 
or  material,  spinning  cloth  of  such 
extreme  fineness  that  man  has  never 
been  able  to  equal  it.  and  of  such 
strength  that  a  single  strand  will 
bear  many  times  its  own  weight  with- 
out tearing.  They  spread  their  dainty  manufac- 
tures on  shrubs  and  trees  for  his  admiration  and 
even  brought  them  into  his  houses  when  not  pre- 
vented. You  can  see  fresh  specimens  of  their 
handiwork  still,  and  find  them  sparkling  with  dia- 
monds of  the  dew,  if  you  will  but  take  a  walk  on 
the  early  morning  of  a  bright  day.  Perhaps  you 
have  guessed  that  these  weavers  are  the  Spiders. 

Ijt  us  examine  the  weaver  himself.  Notice 
that,  roughly,  he  suggests  a  crab  and  like  him  has 
his  body  marked  off  into   two    main    parts  —  the 


fore-part  or  cephalo  thorax  and  the  swollen  hinder 
part  or  abdomen.  From  the  under  side  of  the 
cephalo-thorax  spring  ttie  four  pairs  of  jointed  legs. 
On  the  forward  end  of  the  cephalo-thorax  (which 
is  the  head  end)  are  little  spots  — the  simple  eyes, 
two,  four,  six  or  eight  in  number  —  usually  eight. 
There  are  no  antenna;  as  in  the  crab  and  lobster 
and  only  twopairs  of  mouth-parts,  the  first  corres- 
ponding to  the  mandibles  of  Crustacea,  each  man- 
dible  ending  in  a  curved  fang  having  an  opening 
at  the  tip  connecting  with  the  hollow  inside  which 
contains  a  poison.     The  other  pair  are  the  maxilla. 

Abdomen. —  On  the  under  side  of  the  ab- 
domen are  found  the  openiugs  (spiracles)  of  the 
air  tubes  and  of  the  so-called  lung-sacs  by  means 
of  which  the  spider  breathes.  At  the  end  of  the 
under  side  of  the  abdomen  are  one,  two,  three,  or 
four  pairs  of  little  projections  (spinneret*)  from 
which  the  silken  thread  for  the  web  passes  out. 

Internal  Structure. —  The  spider  has  a 
stomach  and  also  a  liver.  A  tubular  heart  lies 
along  the  inside    of   the    back   of   the    abdomen, 


40 


MODERN    METHODS. 


which  sends  the  blood  to  different  parts  of  the 
ftody  by  the  movements  of  the  animal.  He 
breathes  through  tubes  (trachea)  going  to  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  body,  or  through  pouches  contain- 
ing sixty  or  seventy  little  plates  lying  upon  one 
another  like  the  leaves  of  a  book  and  forming  the 
so-called  lung-sacs.  Sometimes  he  has  both  tubes 
and  lung-sacs. 

Iii  his  head  is  formed  the  poison  which  at  the 
time  of  biting  flows  through  the  hollow  fang,  kill- 


Kinds  of  Spiders. —  One  spider  differs  from 
another  spider  as  one  crustacean  differs  from 
another  ;  there  is  no  monotony  in  nature.  One  of 
the  smallest  true  spiders  is  about  -£%  of  an  inch  in 
length  while  one  of  the  largest  Brazilian  spiders  is 
over  two  and  one-half  inches  long,  spanning  nine 
inches  with  outstretched  legs.  One  so  much  re- 
sembles a  crustacean  as  to  be  called  the  crab- 
spider,  another  so  closely  imitates  an  ant  as  to  be 
known  as  the  ant-spider. 


WATER   SPIDERS. 


ing  small  animals  which  forms  the  spider's  prey. 
The  poison  is  even  sometimes  troublesome  to  man. 

The  abdomen  contains  the  silk  glands  which 
secrete  a  sticky  liquid  that  dries  in  the  air  to  a 
thread.  This  liquid  issues  from  numberless  fine 
openings  in  the  spinnerets,  the  lines  from  most  or 
all  of  these  uniting  to  form 'an  ordinary  web-fiber. 

Like  the  lobster  and  the  crab  the  spider  belongs 
to  the  same  group  Articulates  or  Arthropods,   but 
breathing  through  air-holes,  having  four  pairs  of 
legs  aud  no  hard  outer  crust,  to  a  division  of  the  i 
group  called  Arachnids  or  Spiders 


Besides  the  true  spiders  there  are  many  other 
spider-like  creatures  belonging  to  the  Arachuida, 
one  very  familiar  one  being  the  Harvest-man  whose 
length  of  leg  has  caused  him  to  be  nicknamed  by 
the  children  "  Daddy  Long-legs."  Another  com- 
mon one  is  the  little  reddish  or  brownish  book- 
scorpion  frequently  found  in  turning  over  the 
leaves  of  old  books  or  in  rummaging  among  old 
papers.  He  is  a  harmless  creature,  not  really  a 
scorpion  at  all,  though  the  scorpions  belong  to  the 
group.  Degenerate  relations  of  the  true  spiders 
are  the  tiny  "  red  spiders  "  found  on  plants  espec- 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


41 


( 


NEST  OF 
TRAP-DooR   SPIDER. 


i:\llv  iu  houses,  the  cheese  and  sugar-mites,  and 
the  so-called  "black-heads"   or   "face-worms." 

Some  of  these  poor  relations  live  in  and  on  the 
body  of  man  and  other  animals  and  are  known  as 
parasites. 

Spiders  are  found  iu  every  part  of  the  world, 
but  of  largest  size  ami  in  greatest  number  in  the 
tropics. 

Habits. —  Spiders  hatch  from  eggs  which  in 
many  cases  are  deposited  in  cocoons  or  nests.  In 
appearance  the  young  do  not 
differ  much  from  the  old.  The 
mother  spider  shows  great 
attachment  to  the  eggs  and 
young. 

Spiders  shed  their  skin  or 
moult  as  do  crustaceans,  and 
like  these  also  seem  to  have  the 
power  of  reproducing  a  lost 
limb".  They  prey  on  one  another 
as  well  as  on  insects  generally, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  captur- 
ing their  prey  many  kinds  con- 
struct snares  or  traps  of  some  sort.  Others  spring 
upon  it  unawares  or  run  it  down  and  these  do  not 
build  a  net.  The  most  common  snares  of  course 
are  the  webs  ;  these  are  formed  with  the  aid  of  the 
hind  pair  of  legs  which  serve  to  draw  the  delicate 
stream  of  silk  and  guide  it  in  fashioning  the  de- 
signs. Some  webs  consist  of  a  horizontal  sheet 
suspended  among  branches  and  held  by  lines  in 
all  directions ;  some  of  lines  radiating  from  a 
centre  and  con- 
nected by  cross- 
lines —  the  webs 
of  the  geometric 
spiders:  some  of 
a  silken  tube  fitted 
into  casual  crev- 
ices with  an  en- 
tangling web  at 
the  opening ;  and 
others    of    a    tube  trap-door  spider. 

spun  in  a  hole  dug  by  the  spider  himself  and 
sometimes  closed  with  a  lid  (trap-door  spiders). 


The  common  garden  spider  which  spins  a  geo- 
metric well,  having  chosen  a  suitable  spot  begins 
with  a  line  or  two  across  the  point  where  the  cen- 
tre is  to  be.  Radiating  lines  are  then  run  from 
the  centre  in  all  directions.  Then  from  the  centre 
is  spun  a  thread  spirally  around  the  web  to  the  cir- 
cumference and  fastened  to  each  radius  as  it  is 
Crossed.  This  spiral  serves  to  keep  the  parts  of 
the  web  in  place  and  as  a  scaffolding  to  work  on 


TRAP-DOOR,  OPENING 
BV  A  LEVER. 


SECTION  OF  NEST. 


during  the  rest  of  the  process  and  is  removed  as 
fast  as  the  web  i>  finished.  Webs  frequently  re- 
quire repair  or  renewal  every  night. 

Some  spiders  are  aquatic  and  make  a  cup-shaped 
net  under  water. 

The  same  substance  which  serves  to  form 
the  webs  for  catching  prey  i-  also  put  to  other 
uses.  By  fastening  one  end  the  spider  can  safely 
drop  from  any  height.  By  running  out  the  thread 
where  a  heated  current  of  air  is  rising  and  allowing 
it  to  be  carried  up  until  its  buoyancy  is  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  creature's  weight  the  spider  may  be 
carried  long  distances. 

The  fine  films  (gossamer)  in  the  air  on  calm  Octo- 
ber days  are  spider-silk,  given  out  by  various  im- 
mature spiders,  by  means  of  which  the  tiny  baloon- 
ists  are  carried  by  the  wind  from  place  to  place. 

•■  Fairy  bands 
Sailing 'mid  the  golden  air. 
In  skirt's  of  yielding  gossamer." 

Uses. —  Spiders  are  useful  from  the  vast  num- 
bers of  insects  they  destroy,  while  doing  no 
damage  to  vegetation. 


42 


MODERN   METHODS. 


The  thread  of  which  their  webs  are  made,  and 
which  also  forms  the  egg-cases,  has  been  proposed 
as  an  additional  source  of  silk  and  small  articles 
have  actually  been  made  from  it,  but  the  matter 
has  not  gone  beyond  the  experimental  stage. 


Composition  Work. —  May  consist  in  part 
in  re-telling  the  substance  of  the  lesson — as  much 
as  can  be  remembered  —  in  part,  also,  in  com- 
parisons with  the  Ant,    Bee,   Silkworm,    Lobster 


and  Crab, —  one  or  more  of  these,  on  points  of 
structure,  habits,  or  uses.  Specimens  you  will 
know  where  to  get.  By  keeping  a  Spider  alive  in 
a  box  covered  with  a  piece  of  glass,  or  in  a  fruit 
jar,  you  can  observe  the  making  of  the  web  but 
must  not  expect  to  find  it  as  perfect  as  where  the 
creature  has  its  choice  of  situations.  Incidental 
reading  you  will  find  in  Morse's  First  Book  in 
Zoology ;  information  for  yourself  in  Emerton's 
Spiders.  The  following  poem  may  be  used  with 
older  pupils. 


THE   GARDEN    SPIDER. 


THE  CURIOUS   HOUSE. 


I  know  a  house  so  fair  and  fine 
No  flaw  in  il  can  you  detect, 

A  silver  beauty  smooths  each  line 
Drawn  by  its  patient  architect. 

To  look  upon  its  fragile  frame 
And  note  its  splendor  in  the  sun, 

No  builder  known  to  human  tame 
You  say,  can  An  what  this  hath  done. 

It  has  no  shingle,  roof,  or  beam, 
It  is  not  buttressed  on  the  land,— 

Its  airy  filagree  and  scheme 
Seem  products  of  a  fairy's  hand. 

How  swung  aloft,  how  lightly  stayed, 
Without  a  window,  board,  or  pane  — 

A  dream  in  definite  shape  arrayed, 
A  castle  from  the  realms  of  Spain! 

Though  Piranesi  might  despair 
Its  lines  to  mend  when  once  undone, 


I  see  its  owner  in  the  air 
Across  the  silver  ramparts  run. 

And  where  a  break  has  crept  into 
The  checkered  strands  that  greet  the  eye, 

Has  made  the  battered  places  new, — 
And  not  a  scar  can  you  descry. 

On  geometric  curve  and  coil, 

Dewdiamonded  beneath  the  sun, 
This  little  builder's  wit  and  toil 

Was  spent  until  the  work  was  done. 

0  silken  house  of  gossamer, 
Thy  woven  wonder  does  not  cease, — 

And  yet  thv  blood  stained  doors  deter 
Wayfarers  fond  of  life  and  peace. 

No  revelers  in  those  chambers  meet, 

No  jocund  foo'steps  jar  the  floor, — 
For  they  who  step  within  retreat 

At  once,  or  leave  it  never  more. 

—  Joel  Benton. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


13 


Manilblts^     _  j 
.Anttnna 


Maxilla  ry  Palpi. 
Z. Lahia.L  P*Xpi. 


XOTJC*  OF  lesson  o-v 


INSECTS. 


(This  lesson  should  be  illustrated  with  diagrams  and 
with  specimen  if  possible). 

I— Why  So  Called.   The  Chief  Organs. 

— Show  from  the  illustration  or  specimen  that  the 
body  appears  to  be  cut-into  in  two  places,  giving 
three  natural  divisions  to  the  body.  Hence  the 
name  insect — cut-into. 

The  head  carries  the  mouth  apparatus,  the  eyes 
and  thefeeli  rs. 

The  chest  (or  thorax)  carries  three  pairs  of  legs 
below  and  two  pairs  of  wings  above. 

The   body    (or    abdomen)    sometimes    carries  a 


sting  :   and  sometimes  a  special  organ  for  boring, 
and  then  conveying  eggs  into  the  holes. 

II. —  Segments  and  Joints. — Call  attention 
to  the  rings  of  the  body.  Insects  belong  to  the 
great  subdivision  of  the  boneless  animals,  which 
have  the  skin  divided  into  rings  or  segments.  In- 
sects usually  have  nine  segments  in  the  body,  and 
three  in  the  chest  and  the  head  forms  one  piece. 
But  all  these  segments  are  not  always  distin- 
guishable except  with  the  aid  of  a  magnifying 
elass.  They  may.  however, be  clearly  seen  in  the 
caterpillar,  and  the  body    segments    are   fairly  di>- 


44 


MODERN    METHODS. 


tinct  iu  most  butterflies,  moths,  ants,  bees,  and 
flies. 

The  segments  are  formed  of  hardened  skin,  but 
the  skin  between  the  segments  and  which  connects 
them  is  not  hardened  ;  it  is  pliant,  tough,  and 
elastic,  and  answers  the  purpose  of  ball-and-socket- 
joints.  The  segments  themselves  are  not  perfect 
rings.  Each  consists  of  two  half -bands  —  an 
upper  and  a  lower  —  joined  by  the  pliant,  elastic 
skin.  This  arrangement  gives  considerable  free- 
dom of  movement.      (See  Fig.) 

III.— The  Head.— The  head  carries  the 
apparatus  of  the  mouth,  the  eyes,  aud  the  feelers. 
The  structure  of  the  mouth  varies  of  course  with 
the  kind  of  food  ou  which  the  insect  feeds,  but  in 
one  particular  they  all  agree  :  when  jaws  are  pres- 
ent they  always  open  sideways,  and  not  up  and 
down  like  our  own.  There  may  be  several  pairs 
of  jaws  one  behind  the  other;  some  are  formed 
for  cutting  aud  tearing,  others  for  crushing,  and 
some  have  the  edges  toothed  like  a  saw.  Some 
insects  have  trunks  instead  of  jaws  through  which 
they  suck  juices  —  it  may  be  nectar  of  flowers,  or 
the  blood  of  other  animals. 

The  eyes  are  not  single  like  those  of  vertebrate 
animals  :  but  each  eye  consists  of  a  large  bunch  of 
very  small  eyes.  Each  eye  may  thus  be  made  up  of 
thousands  of  small  eyes.  They  usually  stand  well 
out  from  the  head  so  that  the  insect  may  see  in  every 
direction  —  above,  below,  beside,  before,  behind. 

The  feelers,  one  on  either  side  of  the  head,  are 
of  various  forms,  shapes  aud  sizes.  That  they 
are  of  great  service  to  the  insect,  is  quite  certain, 
for  the  animal  cannot  live  long  without  them  ;  but 
of  their  exact  use  we  are  ignorant.  They  may  be 
organs  of  feeling,  sense  or  hearing. 

IV.—  The  Chest.  —  The  chest  carries  the 
legs  and  wings.  The  legs  are  alwavs  six  in  num- 
ber. The  wings  are  usually  two  pairs.  Very 
often,  as  ill  the  beetles,  the  front  pair  are  hardened, 
and  used  to  prated  the  second  pair,  and  not  for 
flight.  Iu  some  of  the  flies  the  second  pair  is 
wanting,  but  their  place  is  marked  by  two  little 
stalks  with  knobs  at  the  ends.  Balancers  they 
have   been  called,  because   it  seems  they  act  as 


balancers  during  flight,  and  the  insect  cannot  fly 
without  them.  In  a  few  insects  the  wings  are 
entirely  wanting.  Some  of  the  ants  shed  their 
wings  after  a  certain  period. 

V  —  The  Body. —  The  segments  are  usually 
distinct  in  the  body.  In  those  insects  whose  front 
pair  of  hardened  wings  covers  the  upper  surface 
of  the  body,  the  segments  are  solid  below  only  aud 
not  above.  The  wing-cases,  iu  fact,  do  the  duty 
of  the  hardened  skin. 

A  close  examination  between  the  segments,  and 
between  the  upper  and  lower  half  of  the  same  seg- 
ments, will  discover  a  number  of  small  holes  on 
either  side ;  these  are  the  ends  of  fine  tubes,  which 
communicate  with  two  larger  trunks  running  along 
each  side  of  the  body.  From  these  main  tubes 
other  and  smaller  tubes  branch  off,  and  these  again 
send  off  smaller  tubes  which  traverse  every  part 
of  the  body.  These  tubes  are  prevented  from 
collapsing,  or  falling  together,  by  a  kind  of  elastic 
spring  coiled  up  closely  between  the  two  membranes 
of  which  the  tubes  are  built  up.  These  tubes  are 
the  breathing  organs  of  the  insect.  It  has  no  pro- 
vision by  which  the  blood  is  brought  to  one  par- 
ticular part  for  cleansing,  and  so  the  air  is  taken 
to  the  blood-vessels  iu  every  part  of  the  body. 
By  this  beautiful  arrangement  not  only  is  the 
insect  endowed  in  proportion  to  its  size  with  life, 
vitality  and  strength  beyond  all  other  animals  ; 
but  its  weight  is  reduced  to  the  extreme  limit. 

I. —  Kinds  of  Insects. —  The  teacher  may 
ask  for  the  names  of  insects,  and  make  a  rough 
classification. 

Insects  are  usually  grouped  according  to  the 
structure,  arrangement  and  number  of  the  wings. 
The  following  may  be  taken  as  types  of  the  chief 
groups,  and  the  attention  of  the  children  should 
be  drawn  to  the  structure  of  the  wings,  either  by 
drawiugs  or  specimens.  Beetle,  grasshopper, 
dragon-fly,  bee,  butterfly  and  house-fly. 

1. —  Shield- Winged. —  In  the  beetles,  the  first 
pair  of  wings  are  horny  or  leathery,  in  texture. 
They  form  a  pair  of  foldiug  shutters,  aud  serve  as 
a  shield  to  protect  the  second  pair,  which  are 
folded  crosswise,  and  packed  away  beneath.     The 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


45 


hinder  pair  are  much  larger  than  the  front  pair,  ami 
alone  are  used  as  organs  of  flight.     This  group 

includes  all  the  beetles,  of  which  eighty  thousand 
of  different  kinds  have  been  described. 

2.  —  Straight-Winged. — The  grasshopper  has 
wing-cases  like  the  beetle,  but  they  are  thinner,  and 
show  a  net-work  of  veins;  and  instead  of  folding 
straight  down  the  back  they  over-lap.  The  hind 
wings  are  folded  lengthwise,  and  straight  like  a 
fan:  hence  the  members  of  this  group,  which  in- 
cludes cockroaches,  crickets  and  locusts,  are 
called  straigltf-wingt  d . 

:'>. —  Lace-Winged. — The  wings  of  the  beauti- 
ful dragon-fly  are  all  used  for  the  purpose  of 
flight.  They  are  transparent,  and  so  full  of  veins 
that  they  look  like  delicate  lace,  hence  the  name 
lace-winged.  The  May-flies,  which  live  but  for 
one  daj-,  and  the  white  ants  belong  to  this  group. 
The  dragon-fly  can  fly  backwards  as  well  forwards, 
and  with  lightning-like  speed. 

i. — Membrane- Winged. —The  bee,  like  the 
dragon-fly,  has  four  transparent  wings ;  but  the 
veins  are  much  less  numerous.  The  name  is 
not  a  good  one.  because  all  wings  are  mem- 
branous ;  but  there  is  no  difficulty  in  distinguish- 
ing members  of  the  group  because  the  hinder  pair 
of  wings  are  fastened  to  the  front  pair  by  little 
hooks  along  the  edge.  Bees,  wasps,  ants,  and 
saw-flies  are  membrane-winged. 

5. —  Scale-Winged. — The  butterflies  and  moths 
are  distinguished  by  having  their  wings  covered 
with  beautiful  scales,  and  hence  are  called  scale- 
winged.  When  handled  the  scales  adheie  to  the 
fingers  as  dust;  but  under  the  microscope  they 
are  beautiful  objects. 

6. — Two-Winged. — The  gnats,  the  common  fly, 
and  many  other  flies  have  two  wings, hence  the  name. 

II. —  Benefits  derived   from  Insects.— 

Insects  are  small,  ami  as  an  article  of  food  for 
man  of  not  much  importance  :  but  as  a  diet  for 
bats,  birds,  frogs,  toads,  etc.,  they  are  of  incalcu- 
lable benefit. 

The  larva?  of  beetles,  and  the  caterpillars  of 
butterflies  and  moths,  are  eaten  with  much  relish 
in  same  parts  of  the  world.     Locusts  have  formed 


an  article  of  diet  in  North  Africa  from  tune  im- 
memorial, and  white  ants  furnish  an  abundant 
supply  of  food  for  the  Hottentots  of  South  Africa. 
Bees  provide  us  with  honey  and  wax,  and  silk- 
worms with  silk.  The  cochineal  insect  yields  a 
fine  scarlet  dye,  and  to  the  gall-fly  we  are  indebted 
for  the  chief  ingredient  in  the  manufacture  of 
black  ink.  Some  insects  also  act  as  scavengers, 
removing  decaying  animal  matter  which  would 
otherwise  taint  the  air  ;  and  they  act  as  checks  on 
themselves,  one  species  preyingupon  another,  and 
thus  preventing  its  too  rapid  increase. 

III. —  Injuries  Caused  by  Insects. — 
Some  insects  cause  us  annoyance  rather  than  in- 
jury, the  common  house-fly,  for  example;  others, 
like  the  mosquito  and  gad-fly,  are  nothing  less 
than  tormentors  ;  but  some  there  are  which  in  their 
vasl  numbers  become  veritable  scourges. 

INSECT    AND    SPIDER  (a  comparison). 
Illustrate  by  diagrams  and  pictures. 


INSECT. 

a.  Body  consists  of  three 
parts. 

b.  Segment),  distinguish- 
able. 

c.  Skin  hard,  except  be- 
tween the  segments. 
Cast  only  in  the  larva 
-tage. 

d.  Ley*.  Three  pairs, 
each  made  up  of  five 
pieces;  claws  at  end. 

e.  Win'/*.  Two  pairs,  of 
which  one  pair,  or 
both  pairs  may  be 
wanting. 

f.  Feelers.    One  pair:  vary 

very  much  m  form. 
Probably  used  for  feel- 
ing. 


g.  Spinning  apparatus, 
found  in  some  insects, 
especially  catipillars. 
Thread  passed  out 
through  mouth,  and 
hole  in  lip.  Spin  co- 
coons in  which  to  live, 
or  pass  from  \arvm  to 
pupa  state,  or  thence  to 
the  perfect  insect. 

h.  A'ves,  compound,  apalr, 
each  containing  a  large 
number  of  simple  eyes. 

J.  Breathing  apparatus con- 
Blstfl  ot  tubes  running 
throughout  the  body. 


SPIDER. 

a.  Body  consists  of  two 
parts.  (Head  and  tho- 
rax form  one  part . 

b.  Segment  notdistinguish- 
able. 

c.  Skin  soft  and  leathery, 
cast  at  irregular  inter- 
vals during  life. 

d.  tegs.  Four  pairs,  each 
made  up  of  si  ven  pieces; 

(thigh,  ami  leg  each  tiro 
pieces) ;  claws  at  end. 

e.  irintjs  never  present. 


i  "  '■  rs,  changed  into  a 
formidable  pair  of 
jaws.  Each  consists  of 
two  pieces,  ot  which 
the  outer  is  claw-like 
and  capable  of  being 
folded  back  into  a 
groove  ot  the  other. 
Canal  throughout  con- 
necting with  poison 
gland. 
,  Spinning  apparatus  pos- 
sessed by  all  spiders. 
Spinnerets  on  under 
surface  of  body  near 
the  end.  Spins  cocoons 
as  egg-cases,  also  webs 
as  traps,  or  habita- 
tions. 


-imple,  and  vary- 
ing in  number  trom  one 
to  six  pairs. 

Breathing  apparatus  lit- 
tle sacs  opening  on  the 
under  surface  of  the 
body  towards  the  front. 
A  few  have  air-tubes 
also. 


46 


MODERN    METHODS. 


XOTES  OF  LESSON   OH 


THE  BEE. 


bi^ack-board  outline. 


Description. 


Kinds  of  Bees. 


Habits  of  the 

!Iii::-Bees. 


Uses. 


3  Main  Parts 


f  H 


Head. 

Tliorax. 
Abdomen. 
Eves  -f  Compound. 
^>e»'\  Simple  or  Ocelli. 
Feelers  or  Antennae. 

I  Mandibles 
Mouth-parts.  •!  Maxillae. 

(  Proboscis. 
Wings, —  2  pairs. 
Legs, —  8  pairs. 
Basket. 
Pincers. 
Brush. 
Abdominal  Riugs. 
Stilly. 
Social. 
Solitary. 
Social  —  Colon\ 


Division  of  Labor 


Swarm. 
Queen. 
Workers 
„   Drones. 
Building  the  Comb. 
Laying  Eggs. 
Feeding  the  Young. 
Brooding  the  Young. 

i  Metamorphosis). 
Swarming. 

Aid  in  Fertilizing  Plants. 
Honey. 
Wax.' 


Make 


ce.  ■[ 


N  a  weight  of  two  grains  and  a  length 
of  half  an  inch  are  contained  appara- 
tus for  changing  the  sweets  of  flowers 
into  one  kind  of  nourishment  for  itself, 
another  for  the  common  brood,  a  third 
•  the  royal  brood,  glue  for  its  carpentry, 
wax  for  its  cells,  poison  for  its  enemies,  honey 
for  its  master,  and  a  sting  so  sharp  that  magnified 
by  the  microscope  which  makes  a  needle's  point 
seem  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  it  would  still  be  invisible. 
What  is  it?     Let  us  see. 

Main  Parts.—  Head,  Thorax,  Abdo- 
men.—  Notice  that  the  body  is  in  three  main 
divisions:  the  head,  the  thorax,  the  abdomen^ 
(Fig.  C.) 

There  are  three  pairs  of  legs  and  two  pairs  of 
wings  fastened  in  the  middle  division  or  thorax. 
Such  a  creature  is  an  insect  and  this  wonderful 
little  body  we  will  study  more  fully. 

The  Head. —  Eyes,  Feelers,  Mouth- 
parts. —  Looking  first  at  the  head-end,  ou  each  side 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


47 


find  —right  and  left  —  a  little  bulging  spot.  These 
are  eyes,  but,  unlike  our  eves,  each  is  made  up  of 
very  many  single  eyes  closely  set  together,  sli  form- 
ing what  are  called  compound  eyes,  and  of  these 
compound  eyes  the  Bee  has  two.  Besides  these, 
on  tlir  top  of  the  head,  arc  three  little  spots  which 

also  help  in  seeing,  and  these  simple  eyes  are 
known  as  eye-spots  or  ocelli  to  distinguish  them 
from  the  compound  eyes.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
simple  eyes  or  ocelli  are  for  seeing  objects  near  by, 
while  the  compound  eyes  are  for  seeing  things  at 
a  distance.  Tin- ((impound  eye  of  the  Bee  con- 
sists of  over  three  thousand  little  six-sided  pyrami- 
dal lenses  lying  side  by  side,  the  points  of  the 
pyramids  directed  toward  the  inside  of  the  head 
and  the  broader  ends  forming  the  convex  outside 
of  the  eye.  Most  full-grown  insect-  have  both 
Rinds  of  eyes,  though  some,  as  the  ••  Potato-Bug," 
have  only  compound  eyes.  Between  the  eyes  are 
two  thread-like  projections,  one  directed  toward 
each  side,  consisting  of  little  jointed  pieces.  These 
move  about  and  are  the yeeters  or  attennce.  Their 
use  is  what  their  name  indicates  —  to  feel  with  — 
but  perhaps  they  are  also  good  to  smell  with  or  to 
hear  with,  that  is.  they  may  be  also  noses  or  ears. 

We  next  come  to  the  mouth-parts  which  consist 
of  two  jaws  or  mandibles  that  move  from  side  to  side 
(instead  of  up  and  down,  as  in  us ) .  two  lesser  jaws 
or  maxillae,  which  move  in  a  similar  way-  These 
are  the  biting  mouth-parts  :  besides  them  there  is 
also  a  tongnt    or  proboscis   for    lapping   up   flower 

juices. 

Thorax.  Wings,  Legs.  —  The  thorax  or 
middle  division  of  the  Bee  is  thickly  covered  with 
very  fine  short  hairs.  On  the  back  or  upper  side 
of  the  thorax  find  attached  two  pairs  of  thin,  trans- 
parent wings.  When  flying. the  two  wings  of  each 
side  are  fastened  .together  by  tiny  hooks  along  their 

nearest  edges  so  that  they  move  together  as  ;i  sin- 
gle broader  wing.  These  hooks  can  only  be  -ecu 
with  a  micro-cope.  On  the  under  side  of  the 
thorax  find  three  pairs  of  jointed  legs, —  the  hind- 
ermost  pair  longest  —  each  consisting  of  three 
principal  parts:  thigh,  shank  ami  foot.  On  the 
shank  of  the  hind  leu  of  the  Worker-bee  is  a    little 


pit  or  pocket  in  which  the  yellowish  flower-dust 
(pollen)  collected  by  the  insect  is  carried  and 
which  is  therefore  known  as  the  pollen-basket  or 
simply,  the  basket.  The  joint  connecting  the 
shank  and  foot  of  the  same  leg  is  so  arranged  as 
to  form  a  sort  of  pincer,  which  this  part  from  its 
use  is  called.  On  the  foot  is  a  row  of  hairs  used 
to  brush  off  the  pollen  from  the  body  and  this  is 
the  brush. 

Abdomen. —  Rings,  Sting. — The  abdomen 

or  last  main  division  is  readily  seen  to  be  made  of 
rings.  (This  is  also  true  of  the  tin.. rax.  but  the 
rings  do  not  show  so  well  there,  in  fact  the  entire 
insect  is  made  up  of  rings  or  segments  and  in  com- 
mon with  many  other  creatures  which  have  this 
ringed  structure  it  belongs  to  a  great  group  of  ani- 
mals formerly  called  Articulates,  which  group  has 
since  been  split  up  into  Arthropods  and  Worms, 
the  Bee.  with  all  other  insects,  belonging  to  the 
Arthropods. )  If  you  carefully  count  the  rings  on 
the  abdomen  of  the  Bee  you  will  find  six.  Beneath 
these  rings  on  the  under  side  of  the  abdomen  the 
substance  called  wax  is  secreted.  At  the  end  of 
the  abdomen  is  the  curious  sting.  This  consists  of 
two  lances  or  darts  compared  to  which  the  finest 
needle  is  a  verv  rough  instrument.  On  one  of 
these  lances  are  minute  hooks  pointing  backward. 
The  lances  are  protected  by  a  sheath  of  two  pieces 
and  connected  inside  the  abdomen  with  a  little 
of  poison.  When  the  bee  uses  its  sting  it  some- 
times breaks  off  and  then  the  bee  always  dies, 
though  not  instantly. 

Kinds  of  Bees. —  There  are  mauy  different 
kinds  ,,f  bees  and  a  still  greater  number  of  crea- 
tures more  or  less  nearly  related  to  them  Some 
of  these  live  and  work  together  in  families,  others 
live  by  themselves.  Animals  that  live  and  work 
together  are  said  to  be  be  sociable;  those  that  live 
alone  are  solitary.  Among  the  near  relatives  of 
the  IIoney-Bee  are  the  Humble  or  Bumble-bees 
which  are  social,  and  the  Carpenter-bees  which  are 
solitary. 

The  Hive-Bee— Habits.—  The  Honey-bee 

or  Hive-bee  we  are  studying  is  a  social    insect    liv- 


48 


MODERN    METHODS. 


THE    MASON    BEE 


THE  CARPENTER  BEE. 


THE  UPHOLSTERER,  OR  LEAF-COTTER   BEE. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


49 


ing  i»  families  composed  of  many  thousand  indi- 
viduals. Each  such  Beparate  family  is  a  swarm. 
In  each  swarm  there  are  three  different  sorts  of 
bees  which  attend  to  different  parts  of  the  work  : 
they  are  known  as  f/iw«,  Wnrhrs  and  Drones. 

The  Queen-bee  is  more  slender  and  a  trifle 
larger  than  either  of  the  others  and  there  is  but 
One  Queen  in  a  swarm.  She  has  a  sting,  but  no 
••  basket,"  and  does  not  go  out  to  gather  nectar  or 
pollen.  Her  chief  work  is  to  lay  eggs.  She  may 
live  several  years  and  lay  over  a  thousand  eggs  a 
day  during  the  honey  season. 

The  Worker-bee  is  smaller  than  the  Queen  and 
in  greatest  numbers  in  the  swarm,  commonly  form- 
ing nine-tenths  or  more  of  it,  or  about  15,000  in 
an  ordinary  hive,  though  the  number  varies  with 
the  season  and  other  circumstances.  The  descrip- 
tion at  the  beginning  applies  especially  to  it.  It 
goes  out  to  gather  the  sweets  of  flowers,  out  of 
which  it  manufactures  honey.  The  sweet  juice  of 
flowers  which  the  boys  call  honey  is  not  honey, 
but  nectar,  till  the  bees  have  worked  it  over.  The 
Workers  gather  also  pollen  or  "  bee-bread."  Both 
the  honey  and  the  pollen  are  to  feed  the  young 
bees.  Out  of  the  food  they  eat,  the  Workers 
make  wax  for  combs.  To  sum  up:  they  gather 
nectar  and  pollen,  they  feed  tin-  young  bees,  they 
clean  and  ventilate  the  hive,  they  brood  and  defend 
the  young,  they  build  the  comb  out  of  wax  which 
they  secrete  and  store  it  with  honey  which  they  also 
make.  The  workers  live  on  an  average  about  six 
weeks,  but  may  live  six  months  through  the 
winter. 

The  Drone  or  male  bee  is  nearly  or  quite  as  long 
as  the  Queen,  but  easily  distinguished  by  its 
plumper  form  and  the  fact  that  the  great  compound 
eyes  meet  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  Drones 
are  less  numerous  than  the  Workers  in  any  hive. 
They  have  no  pollen-basket  and  no  sting  and  seem 
to  do  no  manner  of  work  but  live  off  the  labors  of 
the  Workers.  Yet  without  them  there  would  be 
neither  Queens  nor  Workers.  (Do  you  think  they 
are  entirely  useless?)  Because  Drones  appear  to 
do  no  work  we  sometimes  call  a  lazy  fellow  a 
drone,  but  bee-drones  and  human-drones    are  not 


to  be  compared.  It  is  not  always  safe  to  judge  of 
the  importance  of  a  creature  by  what  it  seems  to 
do;  there  are  different  kinds  of  work  in  the  world, 
all  equally  important.  The  Drones  live  about  four 
months.  At  the  close  of  the  honey-season  they 
either  die  of  hunger  or  are  stung  to  death  by  the 
Workers. 

Building  the  Comb. —  The  comb  is  built 
from  above  downward,  and  consists  of  very  many 
six-angled  chambers  or  cells  closely  set  side  by 
side.  These  are  partly  built  as  nurseries  for  the 
young,  partly  as  store-houses  for  honey.  We  know 
them  best  as  honey-comb.  In  building  the  comb 
many  bees  work  together,  and  if  you  were  to 
watch  them  you  would  see  a  Worker  take  one 
of  the  little  scales  of  wax  from  the  under  side  of 
the  abdomen  with  his  "pincers,"  bring  it  to  the 
mouth  where  it  is  softened,  and  then  in  the  form  of 
a  thread  or  ribbon  lay  it  on  with  the  feet  to  form 
the  wall  of  a  cell. 

In  some  of  the  cells,  the  Queen-bee  lays  an  egg, 
out  of  which  in  three  days  hatches  a  little  worm- 
like grub  or  maggot  (larva,  the  naturalist  calls  it). 
This  is  fed  with  honey  and  pollen  by  the  Worker- 
bees,  and  in  about  ten  days  it  has  become  so  large 
as  to  till  the  cell.  It  now  stops  eating,  and  the 
bees  close  the  cell  above  with  a  lid  of  wax.  Then 
it  lines  the  inside  of  its  cell  with  a  kind  of  silk, 
and  passes  into  an  inactive  state  {jiujm  or  ckrysa- 
lis).  The  bees  hang  in  dense  clusters  about  it, 
brooding,  and  in  ten  days  more,  a  fully  developed 
bee  comes  out  of  the  cell.  This  passing  through 
distinct  changes  from  early  life  to  maturity  is 
known  as  a  metamorphosis,  and  most  insects  in 
common  with  bees  have  a  more  or  less  complete 
metamorphosis. 

In  a  few  of  the  cells  on  the  edge  of  the  comb, 
the  grubs  are  more  carefully  fed  and  tended,  and 
these  finally  turn  into  Queens  in  about  sixteen  days 
from  the  time  the  eggs  are  laid.  One  of  the  most 
wonderful  things  about  bees  is  that  the  larva  of  a 
Worker  can.  by  proper  care,  lie  developed  into  a 
Queen,  although  the  eggs  for  Workers  and  for 
QueeDS  are  laid  at  different  times,  and  in  specially 
made  cells.     The  larva  of  a  Drone  never  produces 


50 


MODERN    METHODS. 


anything  but  a  Drone.  The  eggs  are  laid  in  regu- 
lar order,  first  those  which  are  intended  to  produce 
Workers,  afterward  those  for  Drones  and  Queens. 


Swarming. —  When  a  new  Queen  is  born,  the 

family  divides,  and  some  bright  day  the  old  Queen 
leaves  the  hive  with  many  of  the  Workers  and 
Drones  to  find  a  new  dwelling.  This  is  called 
'•  swarming."  The  new  Queen  remains  in  the  old 
hive,  or,  if  more  than  one  is  born,  the  earlier  also 
flies  off  with  her  company  of  Workers  and  Drones, 
leaving  the  hive  to  the  latest-born  Queen.  Should 
two  Queens  meet  in  the  hive,  they  attack  each 
other  until  one  or  both  are  killed. 

Uses. —  From  the  sweet  juices  of  flowers,  the 
bees  make  the  delicious  substance  called  honey. 
The  flower  juice  swallowed  by  the  bee  passes  into 
the  crop  or  "  honey- bag ;  "  here  it  undergoes  some 
changes,  and  when  again  given  out  from  the 
mouth,  it  is  honey.  With  this  the  cells  are  filled, 
and  when  each  cell  is  full,  it  is  sealed  tightly  with 
wax.  The  first  hives  used  by  bees  were  the  hol- 
low trunks  of  trees,  but  man  having  found  it  profit- 
able to  raise  bees,  supplies  the  hives  himself.  One 
who  raises  bees  is  an  apiarian. 

Bees  do  still  more  important  work  than  making 
honey  or  wax  for  man's  benefit,  in  helping  to  fer- 


tilize and  cross-fertilize  plants.  It  has  been  found 
that  some  flowers  never  set  seed  unless  they  are 
visited  by  bees.  Others  are  found  to  develop  a 
greater  number  and  more  vigorous  seeds  if  visited 
by  bees.  The  pollen  of  the  flower  needs  to  reach 
certain  parts  in  order  that  the  plant  may  set  seed. 
Some  flowers  are  so  shaped  that  this  cannot  hap- 
pen except  with  the  help  of  bees,  which  dusted  all 


over  with  the  pollen  they  have  been  gathering, 
brush  some  of  it  on  the  necessary  part,  and  so  help 
the  plant  to  set  seed  (fertilize  it)  or  cany  it  from 
one  flower  to  another  (cross-fertilize  it). 

Note.—  Information  on  the  senses  or  mental  powers  of  the  insect 
will  he  fouud  iu  Lubbock's  Aut>.  Itees  and  lias/).*,  chapter  on  Bees, 
Specimens  of  wax  ami  honey  art  of  course  readily  obtained.  A  piece 
of  honey-comb  witli  the  honey  washed  out.  will  show  the  form  and 
arrangement  of  the  cells.  A  few  workers  and  drones,  possibly  a  queen, 
ran  he  obtained  from  any  friend  who  keeps  bees.  If  your  pupils  are 
Old  enough,  have  them  read  all.  and  commit  to  memory  parts  of  Emer- 
son's poem  of  uThe  Hutublebee." 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


:.i 


BOTES  OF  LESSON  OS 

THE   ANT. 


GENERAL    DESCRIPTION 


THE  BROWN  AWTS*   DAIRY  FAA11. 


Just 
as  i  11 
the  bat- 

tcrtl  y 
and  tin' 

bee  we  find  the 
body  of  the  ant 
divided  into  three 
principal  parts 
which  are  severally 
Darned :  head,  tho- 
rax, abdomen.  To 
the  head  are  at- 
tached the  eyes,  the 
antennae  or  feelers, 
and  the  powerful 
biting  mouth-parts ; 
to  the  thorax  the 
legs,  and  sometimes  also  wings;  the  abdomen 
consists  of  six  or  seven  jointed  rings,  and  to  it 
is  usually  attached  a  sting.  As  among  bees,  we 
find  three  different  sorts  of  creatures  in  an  ant 
family:  males  (called  drones  in  the  case  of  bees), 
queens,  and  winkers,  differing  somewhat  in  size 
and  structure. 

Antennae ;  Eyes,  Simple,  Compound.— 
The  antenna  consist  of  a  spherical  piece  near  the 
head,  a  long  shaft,  and  :i  whip-like  end  of  from 
six  to  seventeen  short-jointed  pieces,  the  number 
varying  in  different  kinds  of  ants  and  also  in 
males  and  females  of  the  same  kind,  the  males  of 
any  kind  generally  having  the  greater  number. 

The  eyes  are  of  two  kinds  as  in  bees,  simple  and 
compound.  The  simple  eyes  or  ocelli  are  in  the 
front  of  the  head,  from  one  to  three  in  number 
(usually  three  arranged  in  a  triangle)  and  always 
present  in  queens  and  males,  but  absent  iu  some 
workers.      The  compound  eyes  are  found   on  the 


sides  of  the  head,  one  on  each  side  and  occur  in 
all  ants.  Each  of  the  compound  eyes  may  be  said 
to  consist  of  a  great  many  single  eyes  or  facets. 
Sometimes  as  many  as  twelve  hundred,  the  number 
depending  not  only  on  the  kind  of  ant  and  whether 
male  or  female,  hut  also,  curiously,  on  the  size  of 
the  creature  —  the  larger  the  ant  the  greater  the 
number. 

Legs,  Wings,  Spiracles. — The  thorax  bears 
in  all  ants  three  pairs  of  legs  and  in  the  males  and 
queens  also  two  pairs  of  wings,  which,  however, 
are  soon  stripped  off  by  the  insects  themselves. 
The  workers  are  wingless.  Iu  the  thorax  are  also 
three  pairs  of  tiny  holes  through  which  air  gets 
into  the  body  —  the  breathing  holes  or  spiracles. 

Abdominal  Rings;  Stings. — The  abdomen 
consists  of  six  pieces  iu  the  queens  aud  workers, 
and  of  seven  iu  the  males.  It  also  bears  a  pair  of 
spiracles,  and  usually  a  sting,  except  iuthe  males. 
Ants  therefore,  in  a  general  way,  are  built  like 
bees  and  belong  to  the  same  great  branch  of  the 
Animal  Kingdom  —  Arthopods  (old  name  Articu- 
lates) —  and  having  the  body  cut  or  bisected  into 
three  main  parts  —  to  the  same  division  of  the 
of  the  branch —  Insects. 

Kinds  of  Ants.  —  Ants  are 
found,  speaking  generally,  all  over 
the  world  and  are  of  many  kinds,  but 
they  do  not  differ  so  markedly  in  ap- 
pearance as  is  the  case  with  some 
other  insects. 

This  so-called  white  ant  of  the 
tropics,  however,  is  not  an  ant  at  all. 
Habits. — Like  most  other  insects 
ants  undergo  great  changes  before 
reaching  the  adult  stage — that  is, 
they  pass  through  a  metamorphosis.  *  >ut  of  the  min- 
ute whitish  or  yellowish  eggs  there  hatches  in  from 
fifteen  days  to  six  weeks  a  tiny,  white,  legless  grub 
or  larva,  whose  chief  business  it  is  to  eat  and  grow. 


WHITE    ANT. 


52 


MODERN    METHODS. 


After  a  period  of  eating  and  growing,  ranging  from 
less  than  a  month  to  about  two,  (occasionally 
lasting  through  the  winter)  this  fat  little  creature 
passes  into  a  quiet  state,  sometimes  (but  not 
always)  spinning  for  itself  a  silken  cocoon,  inside 
which  further  changes  takes  place.  These  cocoons 
are  the  so-called  "ant-eggs"  frequently  found  on 
stirring  up  the  surface  soil,  and  which  the  ants  so 
hurriedly  carry  off  to  a  place  of  safety.  During 
this  period  (the  pupa  or  chrysalis  state)  it  takes  no 
food.  After  remaining  a  certain  length  of  time 
in  this  condition,  it  emerges  as  a  perfect  insect  in 
which  process  it  is  assisted  by  the  older  ants 
(workers)  who  carefully  unfold  its  legs  and  smooth 
out  its  wings,  "  with  truly  feminine  tenderness  and 
delicacy  "  as  Sir  John  Lubbock,  who  has  spent 
much  time  watching  ants,  observes.  As  a  perfect 
insect,  the  ant  that  we  are  familiar  with,  it  again 
takes  food  but  does  not  grow,  being  as  large  when 
it  comes  out  of  its  pupa-case  as  it  ever  will  be.  In 
this  full-grown  state  it  may  live  seven  years  or 
even  more  —  the  males,  however,  usually  only  a 
very  short  time. 

Like  the  honey-bees,  ants  are  social  insects, 
dwelling  in  communities  often  exceedingly  numer- 
ous. In  any  community  there  are  ordinarily  three 
different  forms  :  workers  who  form  the  great  ma- 
jority; mules,  and  queens  —  of  the  latter,  unlike 
with  hive-bees,  there  may  be  several.  As  among 
bees,  also,  the  workers  attend  to  the  daily  labors, 
and  the  queens  lay  the  eggs  from  which  future 
workers,  queens  and  males  arise. 

Ants  differ  much  in  character,  some  species  are 
very  timid,  while  others  will  fight  till  death.  Some 
are  thievish,  haunting  the  battlefields  of  larger 
kinds  and  devouring  the  dead.  In  industry  they  are 
not  surpassed  by  any  other  animals  ;  they  work  all 
day  and  in  warm  weather,  if  need  lie,  at  night  too. 
They  make  roads,  by  carrying  off  the  obstacles, 
and  in  some  eases  arch  them  over  with  earth  form- 
ing covered  ways.  Their  dwelling  places  or 
"nests"  are  built  of  bits  of  stick,  leaves,  etc. 
heaped  up,  or  of  earth,  or  they  tunnel  out  the 
trunks  of  old  trees  for  the  purpose.     Some  are 


above   ground,  others  entirely  underground    and 
often  very  extensive. 

They  store  up  grain  for  winter  use  and  even 
keep  other  insects  that  they  can  make  use  of.  The 
common  garden  ant  can  frequently  be  seen  ascend- 
ing bushes  in  search  of  plant  lice  (aphides). 
Watching  you  see  the  ant  tap  the  aphis  gently  with 
his  antennae  and  the  aphis  gives  out  a  drop  of 
sweet  liquid,  (honey  dew)  which  the  ant  drinks. 
The  aphides  are  the  so-called  "  cows"  of  the  ants 
and  are  protected  by  them  from  other  insects,  but 
aphides  are  not  the  only  insects  which  the  ants 
use  as  cows.  The  indefatigable  industry  of  the 
ants  is  referred  to  in  the  well-known  passage  of 
Solomon,  but  you  must  not  think  all  ants  either 
store  up  provisions  or  keep  cows. 

Our  ants  generally  go  out  hunting  singly,  but 
in  warmer  climates  many  hunt  in  packs  or  even  in 
armies.  Those  who  have  watched  them  carefully, 
say  that  ants  also  engage  in  certain  exercises  which 
it  is  hard  to  believe  is  not  play. 

One  curious  practice  engaged  in  by  some  ants, 
is  that  of  slave-making.  In  these  expeditious  the 
slave-makers  invade  a  nest  of  other  ants  ami  carry 
off  the  young  which  afterward  do  the  work  of  their 
masters.  In  some  cases  the  masters  have  become 
entirely  dependant  on  their  slaves  ;  these  attend- 
ing to  the  building  of  the  nests,  the  care  of  the 
young,  and  the  providing  of  the  daily  food.  Some 
have  even  lost  the  habit  of  feeding  themselves, 
and  would  starve  unless  fed  by  the  slaves,  "a 
striking  lesson  of  the  degrading  tendency  of 
slavery,"  as  remarked  by  Lubbock.  Yet  the 
"  workers  "  of  this  slave-making  ant  fight  fero- 
ciously. 


Uses. —  Ants  feed  on  other  insects  and  in  fact 
on  nearly  all  animal  matter,  on  fruit  and  all  man- 
ner of  sweet  substances.  They  may  be  useful  by 
destroying  insects  but  since  they  make  no  dis- 
crimination in  the  insects  they  remove,  this  is 
doubtful.  On  the  other  hand  they  encourage 
aphides, which  is  certainly  not  a  benefit,  but  in  the 
disposal  of  decaying  matter  they  deserve  a  share 
of  credit. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


53 


KOTl  S   m    LESSON   Ob 


THE  BEETLE. 


Show  a  picture,  or  black-board  drawing  of  the  beetle, 
aad  specimens,  if  possible,  should  also  be  provided 

for  illu-trai 

NTRODUCTION.— Refer  to  the  differ- 
ent  kinds   of  living  creatures  aboul 
which  lessons  have  been  given.  What 
other  living  creatures  have  we  heard 
of?  Speak  of  bees,  butterflies,  ants,  etc. 
What  are  these  called?      What    are  insects? 
To-day's  lessou  tells  of  011c  kind  of  insect  — 
the  beetle. 

General  Description.  —  Show  picture  and 
describe  its  general  shape;  the  small  head,  with 
two  horns  upon  it :  the  body  like  the  wasp,  but- 
terfly, bee,  etc.  ;  divided  as  though  nearly  cut 
into  three  parts. 

The  Body. —  Is  covered  by  two  large  wing- 
cases.  These  are  hard  and  differently  colored: 
some  are  black,  some  brown,  some  prettily  striped 
and  spotted.  Under  the  hard  eases  many  have 
two  soft,  thin,  delicate  wings.  Some  beetles  have 
no  wings. 

The  Chest  (Tliorax). —  This  is  smaller  than 
the  body,  but  hard.  Below  it  grow  the  legs. 
Count  them.  There  are  three  on  each  side.  How 
many  altogether?  They  are  long,  jointed,  and 
have  long.  tiny,  hook-like  daws.  Show  how  by 
these  they  can  lay  hold  of  the  rough  walls,  bark 
of  trees,  etc.,  and  run  quickly  up  or  down. 

The  Head. —  In  it  are  the  eyes.     These  stand 

Ollt  SO  that  the  beetle  can  see  (.11  all  sides  of  it. 
The  two  horns,  one  on  each  side  of  the  head. 
They  are  called  feelers.  Some  are  very  long. 
The  beetle  move-  tlieui  about  quickly.  By  them 
they  feel  their  way,  find  their  food,  and  so  make 
their  way  about  in  the  dark. 

THE  Moi  TH. —  Below  the  head.  It  looks  small. 
but  in  it  are  a  kind  of   sharp,  strong  teeth. 

Kinds  of  Beetle. —  The   House    Beetle. — 


These  live  in  our  houses.  They  hide  away  in 
dark,  damp  cellars,  under  the  floors,  in  cracks  and 
crevices  of  walls,  etc  When  do  they  come  out? 
They  run  over  the  floor  and  feed  on  crumbs  of 
bread  and  other  things  dropped  about. 

Garden  Beetles. —  Some  are  very  small,  with 
prettily  covered  wings. 

The  Great  Stag  Beetle. —  This  lives  in  tree,. 
Describe  its  two  great  stag-like  horns.  It  is  oue 
of  the  largest  found  in  this  country. 

The  Dor  Beetle. —  This  flies  about  in  sum- 
mer nights.  Sometimes  striking  against  our  face 
as  we  walk  along  the  country  roads. 

The  Tiger  Beetle. —  This  is  very  pretty,  with 
bright  green  wings,  with  white  spots  and  little 
stripes  or  markings  upon  them.  But  it  is  very 
tierce,  catching  other  insects  and  killing  them  for 
its  food.     This  will  tell  you   how  it  gets  its  name. 


WATER  BEETLE. 

The  Water  Beetle. —  Many  live  in  water. 
Some  very  huge.  These  live  in  mud  at  the  bottom 
Of  the   ponds,  but  they  come   often   to   the   top   to 

breathe.      .Many  1 ties   swim  and  glide  about  the 

surface  of  the  water  in  the  summer.  What  are 
the  different  parts  of  the  beetle?  Name  the 
different  kind-?     Where,  and  how.  they  live,  etc. 


54 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NOTES   OF  LESSOS   OX 


FISHES. 


[Illustrate  with  pictures,  a  dead 
possible,  a  live  specimen  in  water 
instance]. 


specimen,   and,   if 
—  a   gold   tish,  for 


I.-  INTRODUCTION. 

IRISHES  are  inhabitants  of  the  water, 
$k  either  fresh  water  or  salt.  Here  they 
are  born,  here  they  live,  and  here 
they  die.  They  are  not,  however, 
scattered  without  order  or  arrange- 
ment;  on  the  contrary,  just  as  in  the 
case  of  land  animals,  their  instincts  lead 
them  to  make  a  home  in  that  part  best  adapted  to 
their  well-being.  Some  live  near  the  surface  of 
the  ocean,  others  never  quit  the  depths ;  some 
revel  on  the  sandy  door,  others  grovel  in  the  ooze 
and  mud  ;  some  never  quit  the  salt  water,  others 
spend  a  portion  of  their  time  in  the  waters  of 
rivers  ;  some  are  altogether  fresh-water  fish.  "We 
find  similar  habits  of  life,  too,  in  the  water  as  on 
land  ;  some  fish  live  in  solitude,  others  in  shoals  ; 
some  occupy  the  same  locality  all  the  year  ;  others 
in  vast  numbers  migrate  from  one  part  to  another. 
The  typical  form  of  a  fish  is  well  known,  but  we 
find  other  and  curious  shapes.  Some  tish  are 
round  as  globes,  others  are  Hat  as  boards  ;  some 
are  as  broad  as  long,  others  are  long  and  thin, 
with  scarcely  a  difference  in  thickness  throughout. 
The  body  is  usually  covered  with  scales,  and 
these  are  of  all  shapes,  sizes  and  colors.  They 
vary  in  size  from  a  point  to  a  plate  ;   and   in   color 


from  the  dullest  shades  to  the  brighest  hues  of  the 
rainbow. 

Fishes  feed  on  succulent  marine  vegetables  ;  on 
worms  and  shell  fish,  but  mostly  they  devour  other 
fish.  In  the  sea,  might  is  right ;  the  great  ones 
eat  the  small,  and  the  strong  devour  the  weak. 
They  have  no  respect  for  even  their  own  kindred. 

It  will  be  impossible  for  us  to  consider  the  vari- 
ations in  form  and  structure  of  the  vast  multitude 
of  fishes.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  us  to  take  a  com- 
mon example  —  the  Codfish  or  Mackerel  —  to 
show  how  beautifully  fishes  are  fitted  for  the 
watery  element  in  which  they  live.  We  shall  first 
ask  and  answer  four  questions  —  How  do  fishes 
move?  How  are  they  protected?  How  do  they 
breathe?  Hon-  do  they  feed?  And  it  will  be  con- 
venient to  answer  the  first  two  in  this  lesson. 

II—  HOW  DO    FISHES    MOVE? 

1. —  Shape  of  Body. 

By  actual  experiment  in  a  vessel  of  water,  show 
that  one  form  of  body  can  be  moved  more  easily 
through  the  water  than  another.  Take  a  cone  or  a 
wedge  of  wood,  for  example,  and  pass  through 
the  water,  first  with  the  base  forward  and  then 
with  the  point  or  edge.  Show  next  that  the  body 
of  the  fish  is  shaped  something  like  a  pair  of  wedges 
set  back-to-back  ;  the  hinder  one  coining  almost  to 
a  point,  but  with  the  edges  pared  off.  Refer  to 
the  shapes  of  boats,  and  elicit    why    they   are   so 


NATURAL    HISTORY 


55 


shaped,  and  generally  lead  up  to  the  proposition, 
that  tin'  body  of  the  fish  is  so  shaped  that  it  can  be 
moved  through  the  water  with  the  leasl  possible 
amount  of  force. 

2.—  The  Tail  and  Fins. 

Make  a  black-board  outline.  The  attention 
of  the  children  should  be  drawn  to  the  graceful 
sweep  of  the  hinder  half  of  the  body  and  the  tail 
from  side  to  side,  and  the  consequent  motion  for- 
wards. Refer  to  the  way  in  which  a  boatman 
propels  his  boat  with  a  single  oar  placed  over  the 
stern  of  the  boat.  The  boatman  imitates  the  tis.li 
in  this  use  of  the  scull. 

The  tins  vary  in  number  and  position,  but  most 
tislies  h&vejive  kinds.  Just  behind  the  head  there 
is  one  pair  ;  these  correspond  to  the  fore-limbs  of 
mammals,  and  are  called  Pectoral,  viz:  breast 
tins.  A  second  pair  corresponds  with  the  hind- 
limbs.  These  are  tlie  Ventral,  viz :  belly  tins.  In 
some  fishes  these  are  placed  as  far  back  as  the 
tail,  in  others  as  far  forward  as  the  throat.  Besides 
the  Caudal  or  Tail  tin,  there  are  Other  tins  placed 
perpendicularly  along  the  upper  and  lower  sides  of 
the  body.  These  are  the  Dorsal  and  Anal  tins. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Caudal  tin,  the  chief  use 
of  the  tins  i*  for  balancing.  Cut  off  the  tins  and 
the  fish  rolls  over  on  to  its  flat  side.  The  fins  are 
merely  folds  of  the  skin  spread  out.  and  strength- 
ened and  supported  by  bony  spikes. 

III.— THE   COVERING    OF   FISHES. 

The  general  covering  of  mammals  is  hair,  that 
of  birds, feathers,  that  of  fishes  r, insists  of  scales. 
The  teacher  will  show  the  scales  of  any  fish  he  may 
have  secured.  lie  will  call  attention  to  the  way  in 
which  they  are  arranged  on  the  body;  how  they 
overlap  like  shingles  on  a  house,  but  from  head  to 
tail  instead  of  from  above  downwards.  The  front 
edges  of  scales  an'  embedded  and  held  firmly  in 
folds  of  the  skin.  The  fish-dealer,  to  remove  the 
scales,  scrapes  his  knife  from  the  tail  to  the  head. 
By  this  means  the  knife  gets  under  the  free  edge 
of  tlie  scales,  ami  forces  them  off.  The  scale-, 
form  a  beautiful  protecting  skeleton,  and  at  the 
same  time   admit    of   perfect    freedom    of    motion. 


The  slimy  covering  over  the  scales  will  next  be 
brought  under  notice,  with  the  purpose  it  serves  ; 
and  lastly,  the  teacher  may  deal  with  any  modifi- 
cations in  the  scaly  skeleton  as  time  and  oppor- 
tunity offer. 

IV.- HOW  THEY   BREATHE. 

Explain  to  the  children  first  of  all  what  is  the 
real  essence  and  object  of  breathing,   viz:  getting 

fresh  air  in  contact  with  vessels  containing  the 
blood,  so  that  the  oxygen  may  get  in  through 
the  walls,  and  the  impure  air  may  come  out.  The 
blood  must  thus  lie  cleansed  or  the  animal  dies. 
The  larger  land  animals  take  air  into  lungs  or  sacs, 
the  walls  of  which  are  covered  witii  blood-vessels, 
and  the  exchange  of  pure  for  impure  air  is  thus 
made.  But  fishes  living  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
water  cannot  make  the  exchange  in  this  way.  AH 
natural  water  contains  a  certain  amount  of  air,  and 
it  is  this  air  which  the  fish  lias  to  take  out.  When 
water  is  boiled  this  air  is  driven  out,  and  if  a  fish 
be  placed  in  water  lately  boiled,  it  turns  over  on 
its  side  and  dies  without  a  struggle.  Its  blood- 
vessels are  arranged  on  a  bunch  of  leaflets  placed 
on  each  side  of  the  head  —  the  gills  ;  and  over 
these  gills  the  water  is  constantly  flowing.  The 
gills  may  be  called  the  lungs  of  fishes,  because 
they  have  to  serve  the  same  purposes.    4 

Show  the  gills  of  a  fish.  They  look  like  fringes. 
Under  the  microscope  they  are  seen  to  be  full  of 
thin-walled  blood- vessels.  As  the  water  flows 
over  these  blood-tubes,  sufficient  air  passes  through 
the  thin  walls  from  the  water  to  the  blood  to  keep 
the  latter  pure.  Of  course,  at  the  same  time,  the 
impure  air  escapes  into  tin1  water.  When  a  fish  is 
taken  from  the  water  the  gills  shrink  and  fall 
together  and  become  dry;  and  the  fish  dies  because 
its  gills  cannot  do  their  work.  The  fish  is.  in  fact, 
suffocated  for  want  of  air,  just  as  much  as  a  mouse 
would  lie  suffocated  if  held  under  water.  Both  die 
for  want  of  the  necessary  air. 

If  we  watch  a  fish  we  see  that  it  appears  to  be 
constantly  drinking.  This  is  not  so.  however. 
The  water,  it  is  true,  is  taken  into  tlie  mouth,  but 
it.  is  passed  bach   over  the  gills  and   out    through 


56 


MODERN    METHODS. 


the  holes  at  the  sides.     The  throat  is  closed  mean- 
while, and  no  water  enters  the  stomach. 

V.— HOW  FISHES   FEED. 

To  learn  how  fishes  feed  we  may  look  at  the 
mouth,  the  teeth,  the  tongue  and  the  lips.  The 
lips  are  horny,  and  hence  there  can  be  little  or 
no  sense  of  feeling.  The  tongue  is  also  immova- 
ble, and  often  bony  or  beset  with  bony  plates, 
hence  the  sense  of  taste  can  be  but  slight.  The 
teeth  are  very  variable  in  number,  form  and  posi- 
tion :  but,  for  the  most  part,  they  are  simple  coni- 
cal spikes  with  the  points  bent  backwards  towards 
the  throat.  These  teeth  are  suitable  for  seizing 
and  holding,  and  not  for  chewing.  We  may  learn, 
therefore,  by  a  simple  inspection  of  the  mouth, 
that  fishes  mostly  catch  their  prey  alive,  and  swal- 
low it  whole. 

VI—  SPECIMEN  FISH. 

The  teacher  should  now  direct  attention  to  any 
peculiarities  in  structure  and  habit  of  such  com- 
mon fish  as  are  within  his  reach.  We  take  two 
illustrations,  a  Flat  Fish  and  Eel. 

1.— Flat  Fish. 

Most  people  imagine  that  the  dark  side  of  a  flat 
fish  is  the  back  and  the  light  side  the  belly ;  but 
really  these  fish  are  compiessed  sideways  like  the 
herring.  i>uly  t"  a  greater  extent.  Then  both  eyes 
are  (in  the  dark  side,  but  when  quite    young    the 


eyes  were  on  both  sides.  As  the  animal  grows,  one 
eye  works  round  to  the  same  side  as  the  other.  If 
we  look  at  the  fish  at  home  these  peculiarities  in 
structure  would  be  explained  at  once.  Flat  fishes 
spend  much  of  their  time  either  resting  on,  or  par- 
tially covered  by,  the  sand  or  mud  at  the  bottom 
of  the  water ;  and  the  color  of  the  fish  so  much 
resembles  the  floor  on  which  it  rests  that  it  is  not 
easily  distinguished.  Again,  resting  on  the  mud 
or  sand,  an  eye  on  the  lower  side  would  be  worse 
than  useless.  Dorsal  and  ventral  fins  extend  quite 
along  the  body  from  head  to  tail.  The  scales 
are  very  small,  and  so  are  the  teeth. 

2.—  £e/.s. 

This  tish  takes  the  shape  of  a  snake.  It  looks 
and  feels  as  if  it  had  no  scales.  It  has,  however, 
a  vast  quantity,  though  so  small  as  to  be  almost 
invisible.  Eels  are  very  slimy  fish  and  difficult  to 
hold.  The  chief  peculiarity  in  the  eels,  besides 
their  shape,  is  the  arrangement  of  the  gills.  Instead 
of  the  opening  of  the  gills  for  the  exit  of  water 
being  close  at  hand,  it  is  placed  far  back,  and  con- 
sist* of  but  a  small  hole.  When  this  hole  is  closed 
the  fish  can  keep  its  gills  moist  for  some  time,  and 
thus  live  out  of  water.  In  fact  it  occasionally 
happens  that  when  one  piece  of  water  is  pretty 
well  dried  up  eels  migrate  to  another  place,  creep- 
ing over  the  ground  like  snakes.  Eels  pass  the 
winter  in  a  torpid  state  in  the  mud. 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


57 


ArOTES  Of  LESSON  Off 


BIRDS. 


-Skeleten  of  Vulture 

I.— The  Skeleton. 

IIoW  from  an  illustration  that  the  bones 
of  the  leg  of  a  bird  are  arranged  on 
the  same  plan  as  those  of  mammals, 
1  m t  in  a  considerably  modified  form. 
We  find  a  thigh  hone  and  two  leg  bones 
always  present,  though  the  smaller  of  the 
two  latter  is  often  but  imperfectly  developed. 
Then,  in  place  <>f  the  ankle  ami  foot  bones,  there 
i-  a  single  long  hem-  called  the  tarsus.  To  the 
tarsus,  which  is  commonly  looked  upon  as  th< 
bone,  the  toes  arc  joined.  The  toes  vary  in  num- 
ber and  arrangement,  and  in  the  number  of  joints 
in  each.  Generally  there  are  four,  of  which  three 
are  in  front,  and  <</<<-  in-hind.  (The  ordinary  posi- 
tion of  the  t<"s  may  be  shown  from  the  leg  of  a 
hen  ) . 

II.  —  How     Birds    Perch. — The    special 
arrangement,  by  which  most    birds   can    sit   and 


sleep  on  a  hrauch  or  twig,  is  the  most  interesting 
and  striking  peculiarity  in  the  structure  of  the 
bird's  leg.  All  children  will  have  seen  how  a 
canary  clasps  its  perch  with  its  toes,  and  will  know 
in  what  position  the  bird  sleeps.  A  hoy  can 
balance  himself  sitting  on  a  branch,  and  he  may 
••  hold  on  "  to  secure  his  seat  :  hut  should  he  fall 
asleep  he  would  he  certain  to  get  a  fall  of  another 
kind.  But  when  a  bird  sits  down  on  a  branch  to 
feed,  to  rest,  or  to  sleep,  it  cannot  fall  off  if  it 
would.  The  very  act  of  sitting  down  makes  the 
toes  clasp  the  branch,  whether  the  bird  wills  it  or 
not.  The  arrangement  is  this  :  a  flat,  ribbon-like 
cord  passes  from  a  large  muscle  of  the  thigh  over 
the  knee-joint,  and  then  winds  over  to  the  back  of 
the  leg.  being  kept  in  its  place  by  a  small  muscu- 
lar ring.  It  then  passes  down  behind  the  leg 
bone,  and  over  the  back  part  of  the  joint  of  the 
leg  bone  with  the  tarsus,  where  it  passes  through 
a  second  muscular  ring.  It  continue-  along  the 
back  of  the  tarsus  to  the  junction  of  the  toes,  and 
then  divides  into  cords  which  pa--  along  under 
the  toes. 

By  this  arrangement,  when  the  joints  are  bent 
as  they  are  when  the  bird  sits  down,  or  when  it 
raises  its  foot  in  walking,  thi  cord  is  stretched,  or 
pulled,  and  the  toes  are  made  to  grasp  without 
any  effort  on  the  part  of  the  bird.  The  teacher 
may  show  this,  from  the  illustration,  but  a  far 
more  instructive  illustration  will  be  t«.  show  the 
actual  working  of  the  cord-  in  the  leg  it-elf. 
Take  a  fowl'-  leg.  Cut  through  the  -kin  at  the 
joint  between  the  tarsus  and  the  leg,  and  dislocate 
the  joint  with  the  point  of  the  knife  :  a  small  pull 
will  break  the  cord  at  its  junction  with  the  muscle 
in  the  thigh,  and  it  will  be  drawn  out  as  a  soft, 
thick,  but  very  strong  white  ribbon.  Pull  this 
cord,  and  the  toes  will  close  as  if  grasping. 

Advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  specimen  to 
show  the  scaly  covering  of  the  leg. 


58 


MODERN    METHODS. 


a.  Tlead  of  Gray  Goose,    b.  Foot  of  Domestic  Goose. 

SWIMMING   BIRDS. 


Head  null  Foot  of  Owl. 

BIRDS  OF  FRET. 


a.  Ltg  and  Foot  of  Curlew,    b.  Head  of  Snipe 
''■■  <f  Avocet. 

WADINU    BIRDS. 


a.  Head  of  Hoopoe. 

I.  Head  of  Red-backed  Shripe. 

c.  Head  of  Swift. beUiei  Swift. 


d.  Hia<l  of  Corn-bunting. 

e.  Foot  of  tit.  Yellow  Wagtail. 

f.  Foot  of  a  Finch 


FERCHERS. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


59 


III. —  Special  Uses  and  Modifications 
in  Structure- — We  have  now  to  consider  the 
different  duties  which  the  legs  have  to  perform, 
and  tlif  consequent  changes  in  structure.  All  are 
used  inure  or  less  in  walking,  hopping,  or  run- 
ning; very  many  are  used  as  supports  during  rest 
and  Bleep,  and  not  a  few  are  used  as  hands  to 
hold  the  food  while  the  beak  CUtS  01'  tears  it  in 
pieces.  |  Refer  to  the  Mack-bird,  with  an  earth- 
worm, canary,  with  chick-weed,  parrot,  with  nut, 
etc). 

At  the  same  time  the  Bpecial  structure  of  the 
legs  and  feet  of  birds  for  special  duties  are  suf- 
ficiently marked  to  enable  us  to  arrange  the  birds 
in  groups  accordingly.  Thus  we  have  St  izi  rs, 
like  the  eagle,  Perchers,  like  the  robin.  Climbers, 
like  the  parrot,  Scratchers,  like  the  fowl,  Runners, 
like  the  ostrich,  Waders,  like  the  heron,  and  Swim- 
mi  rs,  like  the  duck. 

LEGS  AND  FEET   OF  BIRDS. 

I. —  Seizers. — "  Birds  of  Prey" —  In  this 
group  the  legs  are  strong,  and  the  toes  are  fur- 
nished with  strong,  curved,  and  sharply-pointed 
claws,  specially  adapted  for  the  capture  of  living- 
prey  of  considerable  size.  The  vulture,  eagles, 
hawks  and  owls  are  all  "birds  of  prey."  The 
members  of  this  group  have  four  toes  —  three 
before  and  one  behind:  but  the  owl-  can  place 
the  outer  toe  of  the  three  either  m  front  or 
behind. 

II. —  Perchers. —  This  group  includes  the 
vast  majority  of  the  -mall  birds  which  live  in  this 
country.  They  are  also  called passeres  (passer,  a 
sparrow).  These  bird-  for  the  most  part  spend 
the  greater  portion  of  their  lives  among  the 
branches  of  tree-,  on  which  they  perch,  and  hop 
from  twig  to  twig.  Their  feet  are  specially  con- 
structed for  this  purpose.  The  toe-  are  usually 
three  in  front  and  one  behind,  and  the  claw-  are 
-harp,  but  long  and  slender,  and  of  sufficient 
strength  to  secure  the  bird  firmly  to  its  perch. 

III. —  Climbers.— All  the  birds  in  this  group 
have  two  toes  befon  and  two  beJtind.  This  enables 
them  to  cling  with   great   tenacity  to   the    branches 


of  trees,  or  to  climb  up  the  perpendicular  tree 
trunk.  Parrots  and  woodpeckers  are  the  chief 
examples  of  the  group.  Parrots  climb  rather  by 
clasping  small  branches.  Woodpeckers  run  over 
the  bark  of  the  tree  trunk,  and  larger  branches, 
in  every  direction  by  inserting  their  strong,  sharp 
claws  into  any  irregularities  of  the  surface. 

IV- — Scratchers. —  Chiefly  fowl  and  game 
birds.  Show  the  leg  of  the  fowl  again  iu  illustra- 
tion, and  point  out  that  the  legs  of  scratchers  are 
strong,  the  toes  rather  short  and  thick,  aud  the 
claws  stout  ami  strong  and  lit  for  scratching  over 
the  surface  of  the  ground  in  search  of  food. 

V. —  Runners. —  These  birds  depend  entirely 
on  their  legs  for  locomotion,  hence  they  are  .'ong, 
stout  aud  strong.  They  never  perch  and  few  toes 
are  required.  In  the  ostrich  they  are  reduced  to 
two,  and  in  the  emu  to  three,  and  they  are  all 
pointed  forwards.  (The  teacher  may  here  refer 
to  the  speed  of  the  ostrich,  to  an  ostrich  hunt,  and 
to  its  mauuer  of  defending  itself  by  kicking  for- 
wards). 

VI.— Waders;  or  Stilt- Walkers— These 

bird-,  of  which  the  heron  and  crane  are  familiar 
examples,  wade  into  the  water  after  the  food  on 
which  they  feed,  hence  their  lei:-  are  of  unusual 
Length.  The  length  of  leg  has  won  them  the  title 
of  stilt-walkers. 

VII- —  Swimmers. —  This  group  includes 
geese,  ducks,  and  sea-birds  generally.     The  feet 

are  specially  constructed  for  swimming.  (Show 
duck's  foot).  The  legs  are  short  and  strong  !  i  d 
placed  far  back  on  the  body,  and  the  toes  are 
united  by  a  stout  ineinbraue  —  the  web. 


FAOT/E'P  nest. 


60 


NATURAL    HISTORY 


61 


NOTES   OF  LESSON  O.V 


THE  EAGLE. 


!TS  GENERAL  APPEARANCE.  - 
Show  a  picture  or  drawing  of  the  eagle. 
By  questions  and  statement  set  forth  a 
clear  and  vivid  general  description  of 
the  bird.  Its  i/n-nt  size ;  the  largest 
measuring  three  feet  iu  length,  and  nine 
feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  outstretched  wings. 
Show  these  measurements  clearly  on  table  or  large 
black-board,  or  the  floor.  Illustrate  by  comparison 
with  size  of  the  swan.  Less  bulky  iu  body,  but 
with  larger  stretch  of  wing  and  tail.  It  is  one  of 
the  very  largest  flying  birds.  Its  beak,  curved. 
very  strong  and  sharp,  with  a  wide-stretching 
mouth;  its  talons  or  claws,  four;  three  in  front. 
one  behind,  sharp,  very  stroug  and  curved.  Its 
eyes  bright,  bold-looking,  and  large  ;  its  spreading 
wings  and  tail,  the  beautiful  covering  of  feathers; 
large  on  wing  and  tail,  smaller  ou  body,  all  of 
them  rich  iu  color;  different  colors  —  brown,  red- 
dish, gray,  white,  black,  golden-colored  ;  making 
a  soft,  warm,  light  clothing  for  it. 

Where,  and  How,  The  Eagle  Lives. — 
The  Eagle's  Home. — -Children  who  live  in  towns 
or  where  many  people  live  together  do  not  see 
eagles,  unless  it  is  one  which  has  been  caught  and 
shut  up  in  a  cage.  They  live  far  away,  where 
few  people  go ;  generally,  where  there  are  high 
hills,  and  great  forests,  or  tall  sea-cliffs.  It 
usually  makes  its  home  on  the  top  of  a  mountain. 
What  is  the  home  of  a  bird  called  ?  Describe  the 
eagle's  nest.  Perched  on  the  top  of  a  high  rock, 
reached  only  by  a  long,  weary  climb  over  rocks 
and  hills,  not  often  looked  into  by  the  eye  of  any 
man.  What  made  off  Small  branches  of  trees 
and  bushes  put  loosely  together.  There  the 
mother  bird  lays  two  or  three  large  eggs;  from 
these  come  the  young,  called  eaglets.  Ou  a  ledge 
of  rock  near  may  be  seen  the  bones  of  Other  birds. 
even  a  lamb,  or  young    deer.     How    came    these 


there?  They  are  the  bones  of  creatures  caught  by 
the  parent  birds,  and  brought  to  the  young  as 
food.  The  eagle  is  a  bird  of  j>rc>/.  No  other 
nest  is  near.  No  bird  or  animal  lives  near  it. 
Even  a  man  is  in  danger  who  goes  near  it.  The 
eagle  flies  fiercely  upon  its  foe,  and  strips  and 
tears  with  its  sharp  talons  and  beak. 

How  The  Eagle  Gets  Its  Food- 
Describe  vividly  the  starting  upwards  from  the 
mountain-top,  rising  high  in  the  air,  the 
circling  flight,  till  almost  out  of  sight,  looking 
like  a  speck,  though  so  large.  But  why  does  it 
fly  so  high?  Can  it  find  food  there?  No;  but 
it  can  see  over  a  wider  space  of  ground,  and  so 
be  better  able  to  see  where  its  prey  is.  Explain 
and  illustrate  how  this  is.  But  that  it  may  see  at 
such  a  distance,  what  kind  of  eyes  must  it  have? 
Speak  of  its  keen,  piercing  si<jht.  Then  how  can 
it  reach  what  it  sees  ?  Small  animals  run  quickly 
out  of  sight ;  birds  fly  quickly  away.  Speak  of 
the  eagle's  swift  flight,  the  sudden  drop,  as  of  a 
stone  out  of  the  air.  How  does  it  seize  its  prey  ? 
The  sharp  talons ;  the  strong,  firm  grip,  the 
upward,  darting    flight    should    all    be  described. 

Let  questions  of  revision  bring  out  the  several 
points  of  structure  which  have  been  taught,  and 
how  they  affect  the  eagle's  habits  ;  the  swift  strong 
wings;  where  they  take  the  bird;  why  it  goes 
there  ;  the  keen,  piercing  sight  ;  the  strong,  sharp 
curved  beak ;  etc. 

Kinds  of  Eagles. —  Eagles  are  of  different 
sizes  and  kinds.  The  largest  and  finest  is  the 
Golden  Eagle,  so  called  because  of  the  rich  golden 
color  of  many  of  its  feathers.  Another  is  the 
Sea  Eagle  (Osprey).  It  lives  on  hills  and  cliffs 
near  the  sea  and  catches  fish.  It  sees  the  fish 
swimming  near  the  top  of  the  water  and  drops 
down  upon  it  from  its  great  height  iu  the  air. 


62 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NOTES  OF   LESSON  ON 


THE   STORK. 


THE    STORK. 


GOOD  picture  or  drawing  of  the  stork. 
and  other  similar  birds  will  be  required. 

General  Description. —  By  help 
of  the  picture  go  carefully  over  the 
chief  points  of  structure.  Here  is  a 
large  bird.  What  is  strange  about  it? 
Its  long  legs,  long  neck,  long  beak.  Like 
other  birds,  it  is  covered  with? — -feathers.  It  has 
two  legs,  on  each  foot  four  long,  sharp  claws,  three 
in  front,  one  behind :  the  hinder  one  is  always 
pointing  backward,  like  the  thumb  when  the  hand 
is  stretched  out  for  spanning.  It  has  also  two 
wings ;  the  feathers  are  long  and  pointed.  The 
wings  can  be  stretched  out  very  wide.  The  head 
is  round  and  small.  What  other  bird's  head  is 
like  it?  Thehead  of  the  swan.  Where  is  the  stork 
standing?  Why  is  it  standing  there  ?  It  is  looking 
for  its  food.     Let  us  now  learn  about  its 

Parts  or  Structure. —  The  Body  —  large, 
roundish,  covered  with  feathers.  The  color  — 
black,  or  white."  The  black  feathers  cover  the 
back,  and  the  upper  part  of  the  tail;  the  white 
cover  the  breast,  sides,  and  underparts. 


The  Neck,  Head  and  Beak,  or  Bill. —  The 
neck  is  long,  tapering  from  body  to  head,  like  the 
swan's.  The  head,  oval;  eyes  large,  bright, 
round  ;  on  its  upper  part  is  a  tuft  or  bunch  of 
shortish  black  feathers.  The  bill  long,  very  long, 
tapering,  sharp  at  points  and  edges.  How  wide 
it  can  open!  Show  how  it  differs  from  bill  of 
swan,  goose  and  duck.  These  are  flat  and  soft, 
and  not  sharp. 

The  Lec;s  and  Feet. —  Point  out  the  great 
length  of  the  legs.  They  lift  the  body  up  a  great 
height  from  the  ground.  They  have  no  feathers, 
or  only  very  short  ones  up  near  the  body.  The 
feet  andclaws.  There  are  four  toes,  on  each  is  a 
strong,  sharp  clan:.  Notice  how  they  are  placed 
—  three  before,  one  behind;  how  widely  they 
spread  apart  when  the  foot  is  pressed  on  the 
ground 

Where  and  How  the  Stork  Lives. —  It 
builds  its  nest  sometimes  in  the  tops  of  great  trees, 
sometimes  on  rocky  hill-tops.  Iu  some  countries  it 
builds  as  the  swallows  do  with  us,  on  the  roofs, 
and  in  the  chimney  stacks  of  houses.  But  where 
does  it  get  its  food  ?  They  spread  out  their 
wide  wings,  stretch  out  their  long  necks  and 
fly  away  to  the  marshes  and  plains,  where 
pools  of  water  are,  and  lakes,  and  ditches,  or 
canal  sides.  Down  they  fly  to  the  edge  of  the 
water.  They  do  not  swim,  but  walk  on  the  muddy 
banks,  aud  walk  into  the  shallow  water.  What 
name  is  given  to  walking  in  water?  It  is  called 
wading.  So  these  birds  are  called  waders.  Why? 
What  does  the  word  mean?  Other  wading  birds? 
Cranes.  Herons,  etc.  (Show  pictures  of  these). 
Why  do  they  wade  in  the  water?  What  are  they 
doing  there?  The;/  are  looking  for  their  food.  Now 
we  see  the  use  of  the  long  legs,  and  the  /<»»</  neck, 
and  the  long  slw/rp-pointed  bill.  With  their  bright 
eyes  they  look  keeuly  about.  Soon  they  see  a 
frog  jumping  to  get  out  of  their  way.  Down  goes 
the  sharp  bill,  the  frog  is  snapped  up,,  aud  swal- 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


68 


lowed  quickly.  Next  a  little  fish  swims  by;  down 
again  goes  the  long  bill,  and  the  fish  is  caught. 
So  with  huge  insects,  sometimes  great  slugs  ov 
snails,  even  now  and  again  a  field  mouse,  or 
oftener  still,  a  lizard. 

Storks  take  great  care  of  their  young,  and  for 
this  and  for  clearing  away  frogs  and  other  small 
creatures  they  are  much  liked  and  cared  for  by  the 
people  in  many  places. 

Where  Found. —  The  stork  lives  in  France., 
Holland  and  Gfermany  during  the  summer,  but 
migrates  to  Africa  for  the  winter.  Show  these 
countries  on  a  large  globe. 

Use. —  To  Eat  cp  Refuse.  —  In  many  coun- 
tries, particularly  Holland,  Geiimany,  and  Egypt, 

it  walks  about  the  streets,  eating  up  the  refuse  it 
finds  about.  By  this  means  the  roads  are  cleared 
of  foul  substances,  which  would  otherwise  become 
very  offensive  and  unwholesome.  The  Dutch 
treat  it  with  much  consideration,  and  euact  laws 
for  its  protection. 

Description. —  The  stork  is  a  very  large  bird 
with  long,  thin  legs,  and  a  long  neck  and  bill. 
It  has  toes  partly  webbed,  ami  furnished  with 
c'aws  something  like  the  nails  of  a  man.  The 
I  leak,  legs  and  feet  are  red. 

Kinds. —  The  White  Stork. —  This  is  the  most 
familiar  species.  It  is  i\  feet  long  and  4  feet  high 
when  it  stands  erect.  Its  general  plumage  is  white, 
relieved  by  glossy  black  at  the  back  of  its  body, 
and  ends  of  its  wings. 

The  Black  Stobk  is  similar  in  form  to  the 
white,  but  differs  from  it  in  color  and  habits.  The 
upper  surface  of  the  body  is  of  deep,  glossy  Mack, 
the  under  being  white. 

The  Adjctant  is  larger  than  the  former  vari- 
ties.  It  inhabits  India  and  the  East  Indies.  It 
measure's  as  much  :is  seven  feet  long.  It  has  a  large 
beak  which  is  capable  of  seizing  such  animals  as 
a  full  grown  cat.  a  fowl,  or  a  leg  of  mutton,  and 
swallow  it  whole.  The  head  and  neck  are  desti- 
tute of  feather-.,  and  are  covered  with  a  reddish 
skin.  The  neck  has  a  tleshy  appendage  like  a 
pouch  hanging  from  the   middle  of  it.      The   back 


and  wings  are  of  a  blackish-blue  color,  while  the 
under  part  of  the  body  is  white,  like  its  lone,  bare 
lees,  it  receives  its  name  from  its  habit  of  fre- 
quenting the  parade  grounds. 

From  the  picture  bring  out  its  general  form. 
The  long  legs,  neck,  bill.  What  kind  of  a  bird  is 
the  stork?  Where  and  why  does  it  wade?  How 
does  it  catch  the  frog?  What  else  does  it  catch? 
Other  wading  birds?  Where  does  the  stork  build 
its  nest?  What  kind  of  country  does  it  live  in? 
Any  story  remembered  about  the  stork?  How  do 
people  treat  the  stork  ?     Why  kind  to  it? 


ANECDOTE. 


A.   TAME    STORK. 

A  gentleman  in  England  has  a  stork,  which, 
through  kind  treatment,  has  become  so  very  tame 
that  the  bird  never  seems  so  happy  as  wheu 
in  the  society  of  the  laborers  who  are  employed 
on  the  farm,  or  in  following  the  ploughman  up 
and  down  the  field. 

During  the  haytime  last  year,  the  mowers  had 
scarcely  takeu  a  stroke  with  their  scythes,  before 
the  stork  was  at  their  heels,  and  he  never  left 
them  until  their  work  was  done. 


BL,ACK'BOARD    OUTLIIVE. 

I.     Characteristics  of  the  family. 

1.  Long,  bare  legs. 

'!■  Slender  bodies. 

3.  Long  necks. 

4.  Long,  pointed  lulls. 

5.  Short  tail  and  long  wings. 

6.  Four   toes.       Some    have    partially 

webbed  feet. 

7.  Body  covered  with  feathers. 

II.    Where  found. 

1.  Marshes. 

2.  Edges  of  rivers  and  lakes. 

3.  Sea-shore. 


64 


MODERN    METHODS. 


III.    Food. 

1.  Eishes. 

2.  Worms  and  insects. 

3.  Mollusks. 


IV. 


Habits 

1 


Build  their  nests  of  sticks,  reeds  and 
mud  by  the  river,  in  old  ruins, 
spires,  and  the  tops  of  high  trees. 

Go  from  place  to  place  in  large 
flocks. 


V.    Use. 

Feathers  are  used  to  trim  hats. 
Large  wings  to  ornament  rooms. 
In  this  family  we  learned  about  the 

Great  Blue  Heron.  Crane. 

White  Heron.  Curlew. 

Stork.  Golden  Plover. 

Ibis.  American  Woodcock. 

Bittern.  Flamingo. 

Compare  the  two  families  for  resemblance  and 
differences.  Notice  the  peculiarities  of  each  bird. 
These  birds  are  found  in  New  England,  Southern 
States,  Middle  States  and  in  parts  of  Europe. 


NOTES  OF  LESSON  ON 


THE   PIGEON. 


WOUi)  MOJSON 


ESCRIPTION.  —  By  picture,  and, 
where  practicable,  a  specimen  of  a 
live  pigeon,  bring  out  first  the  gen- 
eral features,  form,  color,  size,  etc. 
Notice  the  pretty  curve  of  the  head, 
and  shoulders ;  the  graceful  wings 
long  tail ;  the  beautiful,  smooth, 
the  slender  legs  and 
Go 


eckt 
and 
prettily-colored    feathers  ; 
toes;  the  bright  ei/e;  the  short,  strong  bill 
again  over  each  part  with  care. 


The  Head. —  Round,  covered  with  smooth, 
short,  close-fitting  feathers ;  the  eyes,  round, 
bright,  placed  one  in  the  middle  of  each  side, 
towards  the  back  of  the  head  ;  the  bill,  the  front 
part  hard  and  horny ;  in  the  hinder  part  of  the 
upper  bill  arc  the  nostrils.  What  are  they  used 
for? 


.'AKKIEK  PIGEONS 


The   Body. —  Roundish,    bulky,    covered    with 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


65 


smooth  feathers;  whitish  usually  on  the  breasl 
and  below ;  above,  bluish,  slate-color,  dark,  or 
even  sometimes  white. 

The  Wings.  —  Formed  of  loug,  pointed 
feathers.  The  quill-feathers,  like  those  of  the 
tail,  are  long  and  strong,  so  it  has  great  power 
in  Hight. 

The  Legs. —  Short,  slender,  covered  with 
stout,  parchment-like  skin.  The  toes,  four  — 
three  in  front,  one  behind.  They  have  strong, 
sharp    nails,    or   claws,    which    can    be    used    for 


in  this  country.  They  are  called  im0il  pigeons. 
Describe  the  great  numbers  seen  in  flocks  of  wild 
pigeons.  In  some  lands  many  thousands,  more 
than  can  be  counted.  They  make  their  nests 
in  trees  ;  in  each  is  laid  two  eggs,  from 
which  the  young  ones  come.  Describe  the  cooing 
sound  they  make  ;  the  rnshim/  noise  made  by 
their  flight  when  in  large  numbers  ;  the  wonderful 
sight  it  is  when  the  great  flocks  fly  overhead  in 
vast  numbers  from  place  to  place. 

The  Flight  of  the  Pigeon. —  It  is  one  of  the 


-5JiA^*i«  t*4S«fe*i&«i,: 


HI.Mi-DOVt 


scraping    tip    the    earth.     What    other    bird   does 
this?     Why  does  it  scrape  in  this  way? 

Where  and  How  the  Pigeon  Lives. — 

Where  do  we  see  them?  These  are  generally 
tame  pigeons.  What  does  that  mean?  What 
kind  of  house  is  made  for  them?  Speak  of  the 
large  numbers  often  seen  together.  They  live  in 
Jloeks.  What  food  do  they  eat?  Where  do  they 
look  for  it?  Seeds,  grain, peas,  young  shunts  of 
plants,  leaves,  etc.  Notice  how  they  drink.  They 
dip  their  lulls  into  the  water,  and  take  a  long  kind 
of  sip  or  draught.  Most  birds  take  a  little  water 
into  their  bill,  ami  lift  up  the  head  so  as  to  let 
the  water  run  down  the  throat.  The  sparrow 
drinks  in  this  way. 

There  are    wild  pigeons.      These   live   in   woods. 


very  swiftest  '.'1'  all  birds,  and  can  fly  very  long 
distances  with  little  rest.  Speak  of  the  carrier 
pigeons,  trained  to  fly  from  far  distant  places  to 
their  home.  Tiny  bits  of  paper,  with  notes  writ- 
ten on  them,  are  tied  under  their  wings.  So  in 
past  days  and  even  now  they  are  made  of  great 
use  to  take  messages  in  a  short  time  over  long 
distances. 

The  eggs,  and  the  pigeon  itself,  are  eaten  as 
foe » 1  • 

Questions. —  What  pretty  little  bird  is  this? 
Is  it  wild?  Tell  me  some  story  of  a  tame 
pigeon?  How  do  they  drink?  What  other  bird 
drinks  in  this  way?  What  is  the  carrier  pigeon? 
How  does  the  pigeon  compare  with  other  birds 
for  swiftness?      Are  the  eggs  good  for  food? 


66 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NOTES   OF  LESSON  CW 


SWIMMING  BIRDS. 


XTRODUCTION. —  Show  a  drawing-  of  I  many  kinds  of  swimmers,  but  we  can  only  study 


some  ducks,  swans  or  other  swimming 
birds. 

Where  Found. — Swimming  birds 
are   found   in   all  parts    of    the    world. 
There  are  many  species  which  prefer  coW 
countries,   and   migrate  in    summer    time    to 
colder  regions. 

Method. —  Explain  the  words  "  species"  and 
"  migrate,"  and  refer  to  the  habits  of  the  swal- 
low. 


a  few  now. 


Characteristics  of  Swimming  Birds.  — 

These  are,  legs  placed  far  back  on  the  body. 
Feet  short,  with  webbed  toes. 

('<>,■<- rimj  consists  of  a  very  plentiful  supply 
of  feathers,  saturated  with  oil  and  a  thick  coat  of 
down  next  to  the  skin.  Bills  generally  wide 
and  tlattish,  also  longer  than  their  feet,  to  enable 
them  to  search  for  their  food  in  the  water  upon 
which  they  swim.  Neck  in  many  instances  long, 
<-.  i/.,  the  swan. 

Show  how  all  the  characteristics  are  necessary 
for  their  mode  of  living.  Refer  to  drawings 
of  the  swan,  duck,  and  other  swimming  birds. 
Show  a  duck's  foot  and  bill.  Children  have  seen 
a  duck  put  its  head  under  the  water  for  food. 

Kinds  of   Swimming  Birds. —  There  are 


Swans. —  These  are  very  elegant,  with  their 
long  necks,  beautiful  feathers,  and  graceful 
swimming.  They  live  chiefly  on  vegetable  Bub- 
stances,  and  make  rough  nests  with  reeds,  rushes 
and  grasses,  upon  the  hanks  at  the  side  of  tin' 
water.  Their  eggs  are  large,  and  of  a  dull,  green- 
ish white. 

Geese. — The  common  gray  goose  is  believed 
to  have  been  domesticated  from  the  European 
wild  gray  goose,  or  Graylag.  There  is  also  a 
beautiful  species  of  white  goose  called  the  snow- 
goose,  which  is  common  in  the  Western  United 
States  in  winter,  and  is  a  beautiful  snowy-white, 
with  the  tips  of  the  wings  Mack,  and  the  legs  and 
bill  red. 

Ducks. —  Some  ducks  have  very  pretty  col- 
ored feathers.  They  live  in  this  country,  and  are 
kept  both  for  ornament  and  use. 

Uses. —  For  their  tlesh.  For  their  feathers 
and  down.     For  their  eggs. 

The  Petrel  and  Sea-Gull. —  These  are  sea- 
birds.  They  spend  most  of  their  time  on  the  water, 
and  prefer  cold  climates.  They  are  found  on  our 
northern  coasts.  The  Petrel  01'  Stormy  Petrel,  as 
it  is  called,  because  its  approach  often  foretells  a 
storm,  moves  along  on  the  top  of  the  water, 
pattering  with   its  webbed  feet,   and    dapping    its 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


67 


wings.  It  received  the  name  Petrel  from  the 
word  lYtrr,  because  it  walks  on  the  sea.  It  is  of 
a  deep  black  color,  with  a  few  white  feathers.  It 
lays  its  eggs  in  a  clefl  of  the  rock,  or  in  a  rabbit 
burrow.  It  feeds  on  small  fish,  fat,  or  the  refuse 
thrown  from  ship-.  It  is  often  seen  in  stormy 
weather,  because  it  can  then  easily  secure  its 
prey.  As  a  means  of  defense  it  squirts  oil  in  its 
assailant's  face. 

Questions. —  Mention    the    names    of    some 
swimming   birds.      What    is    peculiar    about    their 


legs  and   feet  that   is  not  to  be   found  in  other 
birds? 

Describe  a  swan:  a  iluek.  Are  duck's  eggs 
good  to  eat?  Describe  the  snow-goose.  What 
can  you  tell  about  the  Bea-gull?  What  bird 
spends  most  of  its  time  on  the  water?  From 
whence  docs  it  gel  its   name? 

Tell  the  story  of  the  ugly  duckling:  how  a 
swan  was  hatched  by  a  duck,  and  was  for  a  time 
despised  by  its  foster-mother  and  brothers,  but 
gradually  it  was  transformed  into  a  handsome  swan. 


XOTEi   OF  LESSON  ON 

DOMESTIC  FOWLS. 


INTRODUCTION.—  Call  attention  to  a 
farmyard,  and  let  children  give  the 
name-,  of  some  animals  kept  in  9uch 

a  place.  When  they  come  to  folds, 
'ask  if  any  of  the  children  have  fowls  at 
'home.  Show  that  we  call  those  kept  by 
people  domestic  fowls,  jusl  as  we  call  our 
house-cat  a  dome-tic  animal.  The  word  domestic 
means  belonging  to  the  house.  This  class  includes 
turkeys,  geese,  ducks  and  all  birds  which  have 
the  habit  of  scratching  the  ground  in  search  of 
food. 

Uses. —  For    Their    Eggs. —  These    form    a 

valuable  diet,  and  if  people  have  sufficient  room  to 
keep  fowls,  they  will  find  that  by  careful  attention 


to  their  food  and  houses  they  will  secure  a  large 
profit. 

For  Their  Flesh. —  The  flesh  of  young  fowls 
i-  very  sweet  and  tender. 

For  Their  Feathers. —  The  small  feathers 
may  be  used  for  stuffing  pillows,  etc. —  The 
handsome  feathers  from  the  tail  of  the  rooster  are 
used  to  ornament  hats. 

Method. —  Show  some  hen's  egg-.  Explain 
how  nutritious  they  are.  Ask  who  has  tasted 
fowl,  either  boiled  or  roasted. 

Description. —  Among  a  number  of  fowls  we 
notice  the  rooster,  the  hens,  and  the  little  chickens. 

Tin  Rooster  i-  a  handsome  bird,  with  a  very 
tine  tail.      He  has  his   head  crowned  by  a  notched, 


68 


MODERN    METHODS. 


crimson,  fleshy  substance  called  a  comb,  and  has 
two  pendulous,  fleshy  bodies  of  the  same  color, 
hanging  under  his  throat,  called  wattles.  He  is 
provided  with  a  sharp  horn  or  spur  on  the  outside 
of  his  foot,  with  which  he  inflicts  severe  wounds. 
The  Hen  is  smaller  than  the  rooster,  and,  except 
in  the  pure  white  breeds,  less  beautiful.  She  has 
a  comb,  but  it  is  smaller,  and  less  bright  than  that 
of  the  rooster. 

The  Chickens. —  These  are  the  babies.  They 
come  out  of  eggs,  which  the  hen  lays  and  sits 
upon.  Her  warmth  brings  the  chickens  to  life, 
when  they  break  their  shells  with  their  beaks,  and 
come  out.  They  have  no  feathers  at  first,  but 
are  covered  with  soft,  yellow  down.  They  follow 
their  mother,  who  finds  them  food,  and  run  under 
her  wings  for  safety  when  they  are  frightened. 

Method. —  If  possible  show  a  large  picture  of 
each  bird,  and  let  children  thoroughly  examine  it, 
noticing  particularly  the  points  mentioned.  Show 
that  this  class  of  birds  is  distinguished  by  having 
a  rounded,  heavy  body,  covered  with  loose 
feathers,  which  sometimes  on  the  neck  assume 
the  character  of  plumes ;  the  wings  are  short, 
round,  and  concave  underneath.  These  are  not 
nearly  so  useful  for  locomotion  as  the  legs;  for 
short  distances  they  fly  tolerably  well,  but  are 
more  at  home  on  the  ground.  The  legs  are  very 
strong  and  firm  and  the  tendons  of  the  muscles 
are  of  a  bony  nature.  The  structure  of  the  beak 
should  be  noticed,  and  a  real  foot  and  beak  should 
be  shown. 

Describe  the  claws,  which  are  extremely  hard, 
and  particularly  suited  to  the  bird's  mode  of  living, 
enabling  it  to  dig  and  scratch  up  the  earth  in 
search  of  its  food,  which  consists  principally  of 
seeds,  roots  and  insects. 

Habits. —  Houses.  — Some  fowls  are  very 
valuable,  and  great  care  is  taken  in  raising  them. 
They  must  have  a  warm,  dry,  well-ventilated 
house.  It  must  be  provided  with  shelves  fur- 
nished with  baskets  or  boxes  formed  along  the 
walls.  These  should  be  lined  with  straw  ready 
to   receive   the   eggs    and  form   the   nests.     The 


house  must  have  a  yard  or  run  attached  to  it, 
where  the  fowls  may  get  air  and  exercise  during 
the  day.  The  floor  of  both  house  and  yard  must 
be  kept  dry  and  clean.  The  house  must  contain 
perches. 

Food. —  Fowls  must  be  well  fed.  In  farmyards 
they  can  run  freely  about,  and  pick  up  for  them- 
selves, requiring  then  only  a  little  hand-feeding. 
Waste  house-scraps  may  be  mixed  with  their 
grain.  They  must  have  fresh  green  vegetables, 
as  grass,  cabbages,  etc.,  also  some  mortar  or  shell 
rubbish,  from  which  egg  shells  are  made. 


KOOSTEK  AND   Ht> 


Character. —  The  rooster  is  very  courageous; 
he  struts  about  at  the  head  of  the  hens  as  though 
ready  to  protect  them  from  danger.  The  hen 
is  generally  timid,  but  when  she  has  a  brood 
of  chickens  will  fiercely  attack  any  enemy.  She 
takes  great  care  of  her  little  ones. 

Questions. —  What  is  the  meaning  of  the 
word  domestic?  Why  do  people  keep  fowls? 
What  are  they  good  for?  What  are  the  young 
fowls  called  ?  For  what  are  fowls'  feathers  used  ? 
How  do  the  chickens  look  when  they  first  come 
from  the  shell?  Tell  about  some  chickens  you 
have  seen.  How  does  the  hen  differ  from  the 
rooster  ?  What  do  fowls  require  for  food  ?  Can 
they  fly  well?  Describe  the  claws?  Give  some 
other  description  of  their  habits. 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


69 


XOTES   OF  LESSON  0* 


LEGS  AND  FEET.  (Mammals.) 


\w  leg  01  feet  bones  will  be  useful,  especially  those 
showing  the  joint>.    Diagrams  of  limb-bones,) 


fXTRODUCTION.— Explain  the  word 
mammal,  if  not  already  explained : 
almost  all  mammals  have  four  limbs. 
[The  bind  limbs  of  the  whale  are  not 

developed.]  In  man  the  fore-limbs 
arms  and  hands ;  in  monkeys,  all 
the  legs  have  hands  ;  and  in  bats,  the  fore- 
limbs  become  wings  :  but  in  the  great  majority  of 
cases  the  limbs  consist  of  legs  and  feet.  In  this 
lesson  we  consider  the  limbs  of  man.  because  they 
are  always  taken  as  the  model  with  which  to  com- 
pare others. 

The  Parts  of  the  Limbs  — The  children 
to  name  the  parts,  and  the  motions  of  the 
joints  :  and  the  teacher  to  call  attention  to  the  gen- 
eral correspondence  in  the  parts  of  the  two  pairs  of 
limbs,  and  their  motions. 

Thus  the  arm  and  thigh,  the  fore-arm  and  leg, 
the  lorist  and  ankle,  the  liancl  and  foot,  the  fingers 
and  toes,  all  correspond  generally  in  situation 
and  form.  Then  as  to  motions,  the  arm  and 
thigh  can  lie  moved  in  almost  any  direction  from 
the  shoulder  and  hip.  although  the  motion  of  the 
arm  is  more  extended  ;  the  eVbOW  and  knee  allow  of 
lmt  one  movement,  viz.,  backwards  and  forwards  ; 
the  wrist  "ml  ankle  move  pretty  much  like  the  knee 
and  elbow,  but  have  some  power  of  motion  in 
other  directions;  the  fingers  and  toes  have  the 
same  number  of  joints,  with  power  of  motion 
in  the  same  direction,  except  that  the  thumb 
has  other  motions.  Both  fingers  and  toes  have 
nails. 

The  Bones.  —  Draw  attention  to  the  diagrams 
of  the  bones  of  the  arms  and  legs,  Give 
the  bones  their  common  names  and  arrange  on  the 
black-board. 


Arm  asm  Hand.  No.  Hones.  Leg  and  Foot.  No.  Hones. 

Arm,  1              Thigh.  1 

Fore-arm.  .'              Leg,  2 

Wrist.  8              Ankle,  7 

Hand,  5              Foot,  5 

Four  fingers,  12             Four  toes,  12 

Thumb,  2            Great  toe,  2 

Knee-pan,  1 


30 


30 


Joints.  —  Elicit  from  the  children  that  with- 
out bones  we  could  not  stand,  and  without 
joints  we  could  not  move.  Then  call  attention  to, 
and  illustrate  more  fully,  the  varied  movements 
permitted  by  the  joints  ;  and  on  this  classify  into 
ball-and-socket  joints,  and  hinge- joints.  Show 
next  how  that  the  bones  would  slip  out  of  joint 
were  they  not  tied  together  in  some  way.  Secured 
by  strong  white  cords,  or  ligaments,  parsing  from 
the  cup  to  the  ball,  or  from  bone  to  bone. 

The    Muscles,   Nerves,  Blood-vessels, 

and  Skin.  —  Explain  very  generally  the  uses 
of  these.  The  muscles  air  organs  of  move- 
ment. They  are  stretched  from  bone  to  bone, 
and  by  their  contraction  move  the  bone  on  the 
joint.  Illustrate  with  the  biceps  muscle,  which 
raises  the  arm  on  the  elbow-joint.  Within  the 
muscles  are  nerves  and  blood-vessels  ;  the  latter 
bring  nutriment  and  take  away  waste  ;  the  for- 
mer are  organs  of  feeling,  and  they  further  serve 
to  carry  messages  from  the  brain  to  the  muscles, 
directing  and  guiding  their  movements.  The  skin 
is  a  protecting  covering  over  all. 

Uses. — We  have  now  to  consider  the  chief 
purposes  (functions)  which  the  legs  and  feet 
are  called  upon  to  serve  in  the  animals  which 
suckle  their  young,  and  the  modifications  conse- 
quent thereon.  We  use  different  kinds  of  tools 
for  different  kinds  of  work,  and  so  it  is  with  ani- 


70 


MODERN    MKTIIODS. 


mals.  The  cow  is  not  titled  for  climbing  trees. 
nor  the  monkey  for  running  a  race  on  "  all  fours.  " 
On  the  other  hand  a  monkey  in  a  tree,  a  seal  in 
the  water,  and  a  bat  in  the  air,  are  as  active  and 
graceful  in  their' movements  as  they  are  awkward 
and  ungainly  on  the  land.  Thus,  while  the  gen- 
eral plan  of  structure,  as  described  in  the  last  les- 
son, is  ever  retained,  the  details  are  so  modified  as 
to  form  tools  fitted  for  very  diverse  purposes. 

The  great  function  of  the  limbs  is  of  course 
locomotion  ;  but  then  the  locomotion  is  very  vari- 
able in  kind.  One  animal  has  to  make  its  way 
among  the  branches  of  trees,  another  on  the 
ground,  another  in  the  air,  a  fourth  through  the 
water,  a  fifth  through  the  soil,  and  so  on.  And 
for  each  purpose  the  same  tools  are  used,  though 
so  modified  as  outwardly  to  resemble  new  tools 
altogether.  By  a  few  questions  the  teacher  will 
be  able  to  elicit  that  the  chief  modes  of  progres- 
sion, in  addition  to  the  more  ordinary  walking  and 
running,  are  climbing,  flying,  swimming,  burrovh 
iiuj  and  jumping. 


ELEPHANTS'  AND  HOR9ES'  FEET. 

Walking  and  Running. 

In  ordinary  walking  and  running  some  animals 
plant  the  whole  sole  of  the  foot  on  the  ground, 
while  others  walk  and  run  on  their  toes.  In  the 
latter  ease  the  foot  seems  to  form  another  leg- 
joint.  Look  at  the  legs  of  the  cat,  for  example. 
In  the  fore-leg  the  elbow  is  seen  not  far  from  the 
body,  and  the  wrist  appears  as  another  joint  lower 
down.  In  the  hind  leg,  the  knee  is  seen  to  cor- 
respond with  the  elbow,  except  that  of  course  it 
points  forwards,  while  the  heels  show  lower  down 


as  a  reversed  knee.  What  particular  purpose 
does  this  special  organization  serve?  A  cat-like 
tread  is  a  common  expression.  It  refers  to  the 
silent,  stealthy  footstep  of  the  cat,  brought  about 
firstly  by  walking  on  the  toes,  and  secondly  by 
the  beautiful,  soft,  leathery  pads  beneath  the  toes. 
Walking  on  the  toes  gives  a  lightness  and  springi- 
ness to  the  movement  not  otherwise  obtained. 
Most  of  the  land  camivora  walk  on  their  toes. 
Horses,  cows,  sheep,  deer,  camels,  elephants,  and 
many  of  the  smaller  common  animals  walk  on 
some  modification  or  other  of  the  toes. 


CAT'S   FEET. 

Climbing. 

A  foot  like  ours  is  but  little  use  for  climbing, 
and  so  in  monkeys  the  feet  are  shaped  like  hands, 
with  fingers  and  thumbs  on  all,  and  the  monkey  is 
said  to  lie  four-handed.  Some  monkeys  travel 
more  by  making  long  jumps  from  branch  to 
branch,  catching  by  the  hands,  than  by  climbing 
with  "all  fours.''  Now  if  you  watch  a  boy  sus- 
pend himself  from  a  bar,  you  will  note  that  he 
always  keeps  his  thumbs  side  by  side  with  his  fin- 
gers, and  not  opposite  to  them,  as  he  does  in  hold- 
ing a  walking-stick;  and  so  in  the  monkeys  re- 
fened  to,  the  thumb  is  placed  side  by  side  with 
the  fingers  and  cannot  be  opposed  to  them. 

Other  mammals  beside  monkeys  climb  trees  — 
the  squirrels,  rats,  and  some  of  the  cat  tribe,   for 


NATURAL   HISTORY 


71 


instance.  The  body  of  the  squirrel  is  not  suffici- 
ently bulky  to  require  very  Btrong  hands  for  sup- 
port, nor  are  its  paws  sufficiently  large  to  grasp 
branches  of  any  size,  so  the  legs  are  short,  and 
the  nails  are  changed  to  Long,  curved,  and  sharp 

Claws,  which  secure    a    Strong  foothold   even    upon 

tin'  upright  tree-trunk.  A  curious  modification  of 
the  hind-leg  of  a  rat  enables  it  to  descend  perpen- 
dicular walls  with  great  ease.  The  foot  is  so  ar- 
ticulated at  the  ankle,  that  it  can  be  turned  half- 
way round  and  the  claws  pointed  backwards. 
The  animal  can  thus  hang  from  its  hind-claws 
head  downward.  The  sharp,  strong  claws,  and 
powerful  bones  and  muscles,  enables  some  mem- 
bers of  the  cat  tribe  to  climb  the  trunks  of  trees, 
and  secure  themselves  among  the  branches. 

Fi  i  in... 

The  only  mammals  which  fly  are  the  fiats,  lie- 
fer to  picture  of  skeleton  to  show-  that  the  bones 
of  the  wing  correspond  with  the  bones  of  our  arms 
and  hands  :  but  that  the  wrist  ami  finger-bones  are 
developed  to  an  enormous,  extent.  Then  from  a 
picture  of  a  bat  on  the  wing,  show  how  a  thin 
membraneous  skin  is  stretched  over  and  between 
the  bones,  the  whole  forming  a  very  efficient  flying 
apparatus. 

Swimming. 

Some  of  the  mammals  which  live  in  or  frequent 
the  water,  prey  on  fishes.  Now  lishes  propel 
themselves  by  means  of  the  tail-portion  of  their 
bodies  with  lightning-like  velocity  through  the 
water,  and  the  mammals  must  have  their  limbs  so 
modified  for  swimming  purposes  as  to  render  their 
possessors  equal  or  superior  to  the  tishes  in  quick- 
ness of  movement.  Whales,  dolphins,  and  por- 
poises have  their  bodies  shaped  like  that  of  a  fish, 
the  fore  limbs  are  merely  tins  for  balancing,  or 
for  holding  their  young  during  suckling.  The 
hinder  limbs  are  absent  altogether,  and  a  broad 
tail-tin  placed  at  right  angles  to  tin'  body  of  the 
fish  is  the  organ  of  locomotion.  [Illustrate  this, 
and  compare  with  tail-tin  of  fish.]  Seals  too  have 
theii  bodies  tapering  like  a  whale,  but  unlike  the 
whale  they    possess  /""r   limbs.      The    toes   of    tin- 


feet  are  webbed  like  those  of  the  duck,  and  form 
very  efficient  oars.  The  broad,  webbed  feet,  flip- 
pers as  they  are  called,  placed  close  together,  form 
a  tail  of  great  power  in  swimming.  The  bones  of 
the  tore-legs  Lire  very  much  shortened  and  thick- 
ened,   and    little   more   than   the   webbed   toes   are 

visible  outside  the  body.     On  land,  seals  hobble 

about  in  a  very  ungainly  fashion  :  but  in  the  water 
they  are  all  grace  and  power.  The  hind  feet  of 
the  otter,  the  polar  bear  and  the  beaver  are  Hal 
and  expanded,  and  the  toes  are  webbed  like  those 
of  the  seal.  They  are  used  as  paddles. 
Burrowing. 

The  fore-feet  of  the  mole  afford  the  most 
striking  example  of  digging  organs.  The  bones 
of  the  arm  are  shortened  and  strengthened. 
Those  of  the  hand  are  enormously  large  in  com- 
parison with  the  size  of  the  body,  and  are  fur- 
nished with  strong,  sharply-curved,  and  flattened 
.laws.  The  paw-  itself  is  set  on  the  fore-arm 
rather  obliquely  for  greater  freedom  of  movement 
in  burrowing,  and  the  whole  limb  is  furnished  with 
powerful  muscles. 
Jumping. 

The  jumping  mode  of  locomotion  is  best  illus- 
trated by  the  kangaroo,  though  many  other  ani- 
mals, notably  tin-  jerboas  and  the  hares,  proceed 
in  a  similar  manner  by  a  series  of  bounds  on  the 
hind-limb. 

In  the  mole,  the  fore-limbs  are  much  enlarged. 
In  the  kangaroo  it  is  the  hind  limbs  which 
undergo  an  extra  enlargement.  The  fore-limbs 
are  small  and  feeble,  and  the  hind  limbs  alone  are 
used  in  progression.  The  animal  uses  these 
with  such  effect  that  it  covers  more  than  a  dozen 
feet  at  a  single  bound,  and  continues  these  long 
jumps  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  without 
appearing  to  tire.  In  the  hare  again  the  hind 
limbs  are  very  much  longer  in  proportion  than  the 
fore-legs,  and  the  animal  ••  shoots  along  over  the 
ground  by  a  series  of  long  leaps,  with  great  swift- 
ness." In  the  jerboas  the  development  of  the 
hinder  limbs  is  seen  perhaps  in  the  greatest  de- 
gree :  some  of  them  can  spring  from  twenty  to 
thirty  feet  at  a  bound. 


72 


MODERN  METHODS. 


FIG.  I.  —  AGGAGEERS  HUNTING  AN  ELEPHANT. 


NOTES  OF  LESSON   ON 


THE    ELEPHANT. 


BLACK=BOARD      F»I^A.IV. 
I.     DESCRIPTION. 

a.  General  description. 

b.  Special  study  of  the  trunk  and  its  uses. 

c.  Age  of  <  lephant. 

II      KIND   OF  ANIMAL. 

Mt/  >n  ut  "I  —  proboscidian. 

III.     KINDS    OF    ELEPHANTS.     \  -}'ri.can- 

I  Indian. 

IV.     WHERE   FOUND. 
V.     CHARACTER    OF    THE    ELEPHANT. 


VI      USES    OF    THE    ELEPHANT. 

I    Beast  of  burden  and  of  draught. 
,   ,.         I    For  hunting  the  tiger. 
a-     /",/'""-        In  warfare! 

(    Ivory. 
....         I  Food. 
b-     -1"'"'""-,  ivory. 

VII.     HUNTING    THE     ELEPHANT. 

Description. — The  elephant  is  the  largest  laud 
animal  of  the  world.  It  is  usually  from  seven  to 
nine  feet  in  height.  The  largest  are  about  twelve 
feet  high,  fifteen  feet  long,  and  weigli  seven  or 
nioic    tons.      Jumbo,   whom    the   children    of   our 


nati  i;ai.  history. 


7.". 


country  and  of  England  used  to  be  so  proud  of, 
was   not   quite   twelve   feet   high.     Although  the 

elephant  is  such  a  huge  animal,  we  must  not 
imagine  he  is  anything  like  a  whale  in  size.  It 
would  take  five  or  six  elephants  standing  one  in 
front  of  another  to  equal  a  whale  in  length.  The 
head   of  the   elephant     (See     Fig.    '■'>)     is    of   great 

size  and  very  strong,     lu  a  wild  state  he  can  pull 

down  trees  with  it.  He  has  large,  flapping  ears 
and  bright,  rather  small  eves.  The  sharp  teeth  in 
the  front  part  or  our  jaws  and  the  jaws  of  other 
animals  are  called  incisors,  a  name  which  means 
to  cut.  In  the  elephant,  the  incisors  of  the  Upper 
jaw  are  developed  into  long,  tapering  tusks  (See 
Fig.  1)  which  increase  in  size  as  the  animal  grows 
old.  They  are  very  hard  and  white  and  are  the 
ivory  of  which  such  beautiful  ornaments  and  other 
things  are  made.  The  most  remarkable  thing 
about  the  elephant  is  his  trunk.  You  may  be  sur- 
prised to  learn  that  it  is  really  his  nose. 

His  upper  lip  and  nose  are  drawn  out  or  elong- 
ated into  this  conical  tube,  called  a  trunk  or  pro- 
boscis. Tin-  lower  lip  i>  triangular  and  forms  a 
cavity  into  which  the  trunk  can  easily  he  thrust. 
The  neck  is  necessarily  short  to  sustain  the  weight 
of  the  heavy  head.  The  body  is  thick  and  slopes 
towards  the  tail.  The  legs  must  needs  he  short 
and  strong  to  support  such  an  enormous  body. 
Notice  how  stout  they  are.  They  look  like  the 
trunks  of  trees.  The  feet  are  immense  and  have 
each  live  toes.  They  an-  about  half  as  large 
round  as  the  animal  is  high,  so  if  an  elephant  is 
twelve  feet  tall  he  will  make  a  track  about  six 
feet  in  circumference.  (The  children  can  form 
some  idea  of  the  size  of  Jumbo's  foot  by  tying  a 
piece  of  crayon  to  a  string  a  foot  long  and  repre- 
senting with  it  a  circle  on  the  floor)  The  skin  is 
thick,  dark  and  wrinkled,  and  has  almost  no  hair 
Upon  it.  You  have  perhaps  heard  of  white  ele- 
phants. They  are  made  so  by  disease.  White  i- 
not  their  natural  color. 

Trunk.  —  The  elephant's  trunk  i^  so  wonderful 
we  will  study  that  a  little  more.  In  a  huge  ani- 
mal it  is  as  long  as  a  tall  man.  It  has  a  cut-off 
appearance  at  the  end.  or   is   truncated  as  we  say. 


In  this  end  you  see  the  openings  into  the  two  nos- 
trils (Fig.  -J),  which  are  long  canals  running  entirely 
through  the  trunk  into  the  head.  The  nostrils 
communicate  with  the  head  by  two  other  holes 
which  the  elephant  can  open  ami  close  at  will. 
For  this  reason  he  can  lill  his  trunk  with  water  and 
squirt  it  over  himself  or  over  others.  as  he  some- 
times  does  in  sport,  or  when  he  is  displeased.  He 
is   fond  of  BWimming  and   can   cross  broad  rivers. 


FIG.  2.— TRUNK  OF    ELEPHANT. 

n.  Muscles  ami  Tendons.    '■.  Transverse  section. 


When  he  is  swimming,  the  tip  of  his  trunk  only  is 
visible  above  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  is  kept 
there  to  enable  hi 01  to  breathe.  Looking  at  Fig. 
2  you  see  that  at  the  extremity  of  the  trunk  there 
is  a  small  part  live  or  six  inches  long,  which  looks 
something  like  a  finger.  It  bends  so  easily,  or  is 
bo  flexible  and  also  so  sensitive,  that  with  it  he 
can  pickup  a  small  object,  lire  off  a  pistol  or  un- 
cork  a   bottle.      He  does  so  many  things  with  this 


74 


MODERN    METHODS. 


and  his  trunk  that  the  people  of  India  call  him  by 
a  name  which  means  "  the  beast  with  a  hand." 

Use  of  the  Trunk.  —  The  food  of  the  ele- 
phant in  a  wild  state  is  herbs  and  the  leaves  of 
trees  and  shrubs.  His  neck  is  so  short  that  he 
cannot  get   his   mouth  to  the   ground   as  the  cow 


him  to  eat  and  drink.  In  fact,  if  it  were  injured 
so  that  he  could  not  use  it,  he  would  soon  die. 
Nor  is  this  all.  It  is  his  principal  means  of  de- 
fense. He  can  twine  it  about  an  enemy  and  toss 
him  into  the  air,  or  hurl  him  to  the  ground  and 
trample    upon    him,   or    rend  him   with  his  tusks. 


FUi.3.  —  AFRICAN   KI.EPHANT. 


does,  and  other  animals  that  feed  upon  herbage. 
Neither  can  he  reach  with  it  the  foliage  upon  the 
branches  above  his  head.  The  trunk,  like  its  small 
finger-like  part,  is  very  flexible  ;  so  it  can  move 
up,  down,  sideways.  or  even  roll  up  in  a  ball, 
(Eig.  2).  The  elephant  can  also  lengthen  and 
shorten  it  when  he  pleases.  With  it  can  he  pull 
up  a  tuft  of  grass  and  carry  it  into  his  mouth,  or 
pull  down  tall  trees  and  strip  the  leaves  from  them 
to  eat.  Closing  his  nostrils  at  the  upper  end,  he 
can  till  his  trunk  with  water  and  discharge  it  into 
his  mouth  to  quench  his  thirst.  We  see,  then, 
that  one  use  of  the  elephant's  trunk   is   to   enable 


But  the  elephant  is  naturally  a  gentle,  kind  ani- 
mal and  docs  not  usually  injure  very  seriously 
even  an  enemy,  except  in  self-defense,  or  when 
very  much  enraged. 

He  sometimes  fills  his  trunk  with  water  and 
squirts  it  over  his  body  to  cool  himself.  With  it 
he  can  in  the  same  way  throw  dust  over  his  back 
and  sides  to  keep  off  insects. 

When  very  warm  and  annoyed  by  flies,  he  occa- 
sionally takes  a  branch  of  a  tree  and  fans  himself. 
With  his  trunk  he  makes  a  peculiar  sound  called 
trumpeting,  because  it  is  a  shrill  tone  something 
like  the  blast  of  a  trumpet.     The  elephant  is  aware 


NATURAL   HISTORY. 


75 


of  tlic  importance  of  his  trunk  and  when  he  is  in 
danger  raises  it  high  above  his  head  to  keep  it  out 
of  harm's  way.  Be  docs  this  when  hunting  the 
tiirer.  so  that  it  may  not  lie  injured  by  that  animal. 

Age.  —  Elephants  reach  a  great  age.  It  is 
supposed  that  they  live  to  lie  a  hundred  and  fifty 
or  two  hundred  years  old. 

Kind  of  Animal.  —  The  elephant  nurses  its 
young,  and  is  therefore  a  mammal.  It  has  five 
toes  on  each  foot,  instead  of  two,  as  the  camel  has. 
some  of  these  are  protected  by  hoofs,  so  he  might 
be  called  an  ungulate,  and  lie  is  sometimes  so 
called,  but  more  often  another  name,  on  account 
of  his  proboscis  is  given  him.  He  is  called  a  pro- 
bos-cid-ian. 

Kinds  Of  Elephants.  —  There  are  two  kinds, 
the  African,  so  called  because  he  lives  in  Africa  ami 
the  Indian  found  in  Asia.  They  are  very  much 
alike  except  that  the  African  is  the  larger  and  has 
monstrous  ears  (Fig.  :'■  l  which  reach  below  the 
head.  They  are  sometimes  five  feet  long  and  four 
feet  wide,  and  are  used  by  the  natives  for  shields. 
Both  males  and  females  have  tusks,  while  the 
Indian  female  does  not.  Four  of  the  toes  on  each 
front  foot  and  tint n  each  back  foot  arc  pro- 
vided witli  hoofs  :  Indian  elephants  have  hoofs  on 
all  the  front  toes  and  on  four  toes  of  each  back 
fo.it.  Jumbo>Vas  an  African  elephant,  as  can  he 
seen  by  Ins  picture.  His  tusks  were  just  begin- 
ning to  grow  when  he  was  killed.    (Fig.  1  ). 

Where  Found  —  The  elephant  is  a  great 
eater.  For  this  rtason  he  must  lie  where  food  is 
abundant.  Jumbo  ate  each  day  two  hundred 
pounds  of  hay.  sixty-four  quarts  of  oats,  a  barrel 
of  potatoes,  ten  or  fifteen  large  loaves  of  bread 
and  several  quarts  of  onions,  besides  all  the  cake 
and  peanuts  the  children  gave  him.  A  large  eli  - 
pliant  drinks  between  two  and  three  barrels  of 
water  daily.  They  also  take  frequent  baths. 
You  see  then  that  elephants  must  live  where  tin  re 
is  plenty  of  water  and  an  ahundant  vegetation.  It 
is  very  warm  and  rains  a  great  deal  within  the 
tropics.  For  this  reason  plants  grow  fast  and 
large  there.      The  elephant,  like  the  camel,  finds  ln~ 


home  in  the  old  World,  but  nearer  the  equator,  ill 

the  forests  and  jungles,  south  of  the  desert  regions. 
The  African  is  found  everywhere  in  the  interior  of 
the  continent  where  there  is  food  for  him.  He 
used  to  live  as  far  south  as  (ape  Colony,  hut  lias 
been  driven  from  that  section  by  white  men.  The 
Indian  elephant  i<  found  (see  map)  in  India,  Bur- 
niah,  Siam  and  the  Islands  of  Ceylon.  Sumatra  and 
Borneo. 

Character  of  the  Elephant. —  The  ele- 
phant, unlike  the  camel,  is  docile  and  patient.  He 
becomes  attached  to  man.  Jumbo  was  never  hap- 
pier than  when  a  dozen  children  were  upon  his 
hack  ami  he  was  giving  them  a  ride.  Of  course 
elephants  are  sometime  cross  and  dangerous,  hut 
so  arc  d"^  and  cows.  They  are  likely  to  grow 
Ugly  with  age.  In  such  cases,  their  masters  keep 
them  in  subjection  by  prodding  them.  That  is, 
they  tie  the  elephants  up  and  goad  them  with  a 
sharp  pointed  instrument  called  a  prod.  The  ele- 
phant hears  it  as  long  as  he  can.  When  he  finally 
decides  to  submit  and  lie  good,  he  Olives  a  kind  of 
squeal  which  is  his  way  of  saying  that  he  gives 
in.      He  will  then  behave  quite  well  for  a  time. 

Uses   of    the   Elephant. —  An   animal    so 

strong,  SO  gentle  and  so  easily  trained  is  very  Ser- 
viceable to  man.  Formerly  both  the  African  and 
the  Indian  elephant  were  tamed,  hut  now  the 
Indian  elephant  only  is  domesticated.  Attached  to 
a  plow  he  will  do  the  work  of  twenty  oxen.  There 
is  one  difficulty,  however.  He  is  such  an  enor- 
mous eater  that  it  costs  a  great  deal  to  keep  him. 
As  he  can  lift  heavy  weights,  he  is  employee]  in 
making  bridges  and  in  the  erection  of  large  build- 
ings. He  is  useful  in  carrying  Stores  where  roads 
have  not  been  made,  and  for  dragging  artillery, 
and  for  piling  timber,  etc. 

The  African  elephant  is  Used  for  food  by  the 
natives.  Except  the  trunk,  the  tongue,  the  heart, 
and  the  feet,  his  flesh  is  not  considered  very  good 
eating    by    white    people,   hut    the     negroes    like    it. 

He  is  especially  valuable  on  account  of  his  ivory, 
as  his  tusks  arc  large,  sometimes  weighing  1  .".0 
pounds.  Ivory  is  worth  rather  more  than  a  dollar 
a  pound,  SO  an  elephant's  tusks  are  very  valuable. 


MODERN  METHODS. 


It  is  said  that  25,000  elephants  are  put  to  death 
every  year  for  their  tusks.  Ivory  is  used  for 
handles  of  knives  and  brushes  and  for  ornaments. 
The  Chinese  make  the  most  beautiful  articles  of  it. 
The  English  use  a  great  deal  of  it  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  knives. 

Hunting  the  Elephant.  —  The  Africans 
hunt  the  elephant  in  a  rude  way.  Sometimes  they 
dig  a  pit-fall  in  his  path  to  some  stream  of  water, 
and  fasten  a  sharp-pointed  stick  at  the  bottom, 
which  pierces  him,  and  prevents  his  escape. 

Sometimes  the  elephant-hunters,  or  aggageers, 
of  the  Hamran  tribe  in  Africa  use  swords  for  kill- 
ing elephants.  They  follow  the  tracks  of  the 
animal,  so  as  to  arrive  at  their  game  between  the 
hoars  of  10  and  12  A.  M.,  at  which  time  it  ;s  either 
asleep  or  extremely  listless,  and  easy  to  approach. 
Should  they  discover  the  animal  asleep,  one  of  the 
hunters  would  creep  steathily  towards    the   head, 


and  with  one  blow  sever  the  trunk  while  stretched 
upon  the  ground ;  in  which  case  the  elephant 
would  start  upon  his  feet,  while  the  hunters  escaped 
in  the  confusion  of  the  moment.  The  trunk 
severed  would  cause  a  loss  of  blood  sufficient  to 
insure  the  death  of  the  elephant  within  about  an 
hour. 

Elephants  are  usually  found  in  herds  of  from 
ten  to  thirty,  led  by  one  old  elephant  called  the 
patriarch,  which  directs  them  and  defends  them. 
The  East  Indians  sometimes  spend  several  weeks 
in  capturing  a  herd.  Around  an  open  place  in 
the  jungle  they  build  a  high,  strong  fence  of  bam- 
boo with  one  small  opening  in  it.  Surrounding 
the  herd,  they  gradually  drive  them  into  the  path 
leading  up  to  this  enclosure.  In  this  way  they 
are  assisted  by  the  tame  elephants,  which  coax  the 
wild  elephants  into  these  pathways. 


BLACK- BOAiD  OUTLINES. 


SUGGESTIONS. 

a.  With  tlir  Mid  of  pictures,  all  under  "  matter," 
except  the  illustrative  stories,  can  be  taught  by  ques- 
ting, if  possible,  draw  upon  the  board  those  that  you 
can  represent  easily ;  and  use  others  found  in  books. 
(You  can  get  a  stencil  of  an  elephant.)  If  you  have 
not  a  piece  of  ivory,  some  child  in  the  school  may  lie 
able  to  procure  a  specimen  for  the  clas^  to  sic. 


'..  If  the  children  arc  much  interested  and  you  have 
time  to  do  so.  follow  this  lesson  with  a  short  one  upon 
extinct  elephants,  taking  up  especially  the  Mastodon  and 
the  remains  of  elephants  found  in  our  own  country, 
the  Mammoth;  and  the  ivory  of  Siberia. 

c.  To  make  the  exercise  a  profitable  language  les- 
son,  let  the  children  reproduce  both  orally  and  in  writ- 
ins. 

—  Elvira  Carver. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


1 1 


N0TB8  OF  LESSON  ON 

THE   BEAVER. 


ENERAL   DESCRIPTION.  —  Procure 
a  picture  of  the   beaver,  and,  if  pos- 
sible,   a    piece    of   its   fur.      Show  the 
'•'^     picture,  aud  iu  the  usual  maimer  bring 
out,    by    question    and    description,    its 
sh:\pe,   covering,   parts,   etc.      Its  round 
body,    sharp-pointed    head:    thick,    soft, 
close-growing  fur,  dark-brown  or  chestnut  color; 


ting  of  the  branches  of  trees  with  their  sharp, 
chisel-like  teeth.  They  an'  gnawing  animals. 
What  does  that  mean?  Name  other  gnawing 
animals?  Rabbit,  mouse,  rat,  are  all  gnawing 
animals.  The  shape  of  their  teeth,  and  the  way 
in  which  they  are  used,  are  the  same  in  all  these 
animals.  Speak  of  the  clever  way  in  which  they 
gnaw    off   the    branches  of    the    trees,    aud    push 


1EIK    BEAVERS   AT   HOME. 


especially  its  strangely-shaped  tail  and  its  webbed 
feet.  How  strange  the  latter  are  I  What  bird 
has  a  webbed  foot?  What  does  the  duck  use  it 
for?  The  beaver,  too,  is  a  swimmer?  Notice 
the  kind  of  tail,  covered,  with  markings  and  rough, 
scaly  skin,  a  little  like  that  of  a  fish. 

Where  and  How  the  Beaver  Lives. — 
Describe  its  home  in  and  near  the  rivers  and  lakes 
of  cold  northern  lauds.  They  live  many  together, 
and  may  be  seen  swimming  in  the  water.  What 
helps  them  to  swim?  Sometimes  running  about 
on  the  banks,  even  climbing  the  trunks  of 
trees.     The  curious  dwelling  they  build  ;   the  cut- 


them  through  the  water.  They  push  them  to- 
gether so  that  the  ends  of  the  trees  aud  boughs 
stick  in  the  mud,  they  bring  mud  from  the  bank 
and  heap  it  on  the  branches  of  the  trees,  aud 
build  a  kind  of  wall  with  them.  Describe  the 
curious  look  of  the  houses  in  which  they  build, 
the  tops  of  them  showing  above  the  water.  They 
make  passages  from  one  part  to  another,  aud  live 
there  through  the  cold  winter  months.  They 
are  very  timid  and  shy,  and  cannot  endure  the 
presence  of  man.  When  frightened  they  dive 
into  the  deep  water,  and  swim  quickly  away. 
Give  other  descriptions  of  their  habits. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


79 


NOTES  OF  I  I  SSON  OK 


THE    FOX. 


iENERAL    DESCRIPTION.  —  By    aid 
of  a  good  picture,  drawing  or  stencil 

^j-^k''jl[  outline  on  black-board,  bring  clearly 
K^xi^i'^  oul  the  general  features  of  structure 
and  appearance,  [ts  name;  general 
likeness  to  the  dog;  size,  color;  /"«'■ 
^"^  sharper,  and  bushier  tail  than  the  dog's ; 

lithe,  in-tin  .  strong-looking. 

The  Head. —  Erect,  tapering;  ears  standing 
straight  up.  pointed;  eyes  bright,  keen-looking, 
set  forward ;  mouth  open  wide,  Bhowing  two  rows 
of  strong,  sharp-pointed  teeth;  neck,  Longish, 
stout,  standing  straight  up  from  shoulders,  - 
to  lift  t ho  head  well  above  the  body. 

The  Body. —  Long,  large  deep  chest,  giving 
plenty  of  breath,  so  enabling  it  to  keep  on  running 
for  a  long-  time;  covered  with  thick-growing, 
yellowish-brown,  softish  hair  or  fur.  The  Tail. — 
Straight,  bushy,  tipped  with  white.  Make  very  clear 
the  distinctiveness  of  the  bushy  tail,  sometimes 
called  the  brush. 

The  Legs. —  Stout,  strong-looking,  feetthick- 
i-h  ;  it-  four  toes,  each  having  a  strong  claw,  not 
sharp  as  the  cat's  i*.  How  due-  the  cat  keep  its 
claws  sharp?  The  fox  cannot  draw  its  claws  in. 
so  they  get  blunted  by  running  over  the  stones  and 
earth. 

Where  and  How  the  Fox  Lives  P—  Ask 
if  any  have  seen  a  fox,  and  where?  Children  liv- 
ing in  the  country  may  have  done  SO.  They  will 
tell  whne  it  may  be  seen.  So  bring  out  that  the 
fox  is  a  wild  animal.  It  lives  in  woods,  getting 
into  a  hole  in  the  earth.  Sometimes  it  lives  in  a 
hole  in  the  stamp  of  an  old  tree,  [ts  young  ones 
are  sometime-  so  found.  What  i-  the  food  of  the 
fox?     It   feed-  i. n  the  flesh  of  other  animals.     It 

catches    living    creature-.        '/'/,.     fox    18   •'    hcust     of 

prey.  Describe  it-  cunning,  crafty  ways  of  hunt- 
ing them:  it-  stealing  at  night  into  the  poultry 
house   or   farm-yard:     catching    poultry,     rabbits, 


young  birds,  even  mice  and  frogs,  if  it  can  gel 
nothing  better.     It  is  quick  in  hearing,  smelling, 

and  seeing,  so  is  difficult  to  catch. 

Kinds  of  Fox  and  Uses  Made  of  Them. 

—  The  fox  of  our  land  is  called  the  common  fox. 
In  very  cold  lands  lives  the  Arctic  Fox.   It  is  smaller 

than  the  fox  of  this  land.  It-  fur  or  hair  is  white 
or  bluish-gray,  very  thick,  long  and  soft;  its  feel 
and  legs  very  hairy.  Why  does  it  need  such  a 
covering?  It  is  caught  in  traps  and  snares  for  the 
sake  of  its  line  fur.  The  skin  is  very  valuable, 
and  i-  used  for  trimming  cloak- and  dresses.  The 
people  living  in  the  cold  northern  lands  sometimes 

eat    the   ttesli  of    the   tox. 

Questions. — 'What     animal     does     tie-      fo\ 
resemble??  In  what    points  does  it  resemble  the 

dog?  What  sort  of  a  tail  ha-  it?  What  is  the 
tail  sometime-  called,  and  by  whom?  I-  the  fox 
a  wild  animal?  Since  it  catches  ami  feeds  on 
other  animals,  what  is  it  called?  In  what  way  arc 
foxes  used  for  sport ':  For  what  are  its  tendons  used? 


ANECDOTE. 


A  gentleman,  who  was  a  groat  hunter,  once  hart  a  beautiful 
fox,  which  he  hart  kept  for  seme  month-,  intending  to  use 
him  for  sporting  purposes.  After  a  time,  the  animal  learned 
to  know  his  voice,  ami  would  allow  no  one  else  to  go  near 
him.  so  a  -oil  ol  kennel  was  made  for  him  in  the  loft  of  the 
Stable,  and  the  gentleman  would  visit  him  every  day  and 
tiring  him  f 1. 

line  evening  be  returned  late  at  night  from  a  journey 
which  hart  kept  him  all  .lay  from  home,  and  taking  a  lantern, 
proceeded  to  the  stable  to  see  if  tin-  fox  was  all  right.  He 
found  him  crouched  at  the  foot  ol  the  steps  which  led  to  the 
loft,  anrt  although  in-  manifested  great  pleasure  at  seeing hia 
master,  yet  when  i»-  attempted  to  ascend  the  loft,  the  fox 
immediately  ran  in  front  of  him.  snarling  anil  showing  his 
teeth,  and  using  every  effort  to  prei  enl  in-  u'oing  up. 

on  lights  ami  help  being  procured  it  was  discovered  that 

soi f  the  upper  flooring  had  given  wi  irmid- 

ole,  through  which,  if  the  get  pwlth 

no  other  light  than  the  dim  lantern,  he  would  undoubtedly 
have  fallen  through,  aini  perhaps  have  been  seriously  in- 
jured. :t  i-  gratifying  to  know  that  the  hunter  never 
allowed  thai  tox  to  be  chas  but  kept  him  for 

so  thai  after  a  time  be  used  to  follow  him  around  the 
grounds  like  a  dog. 


80 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


fil 


IfOTKX   OF  LEHSON  OX 

THE    LEOPARD. 
NTRODUCTION.  —  Show  pictures   or 


&->  Where  Found. 


black-board  drawings  of  u  tiger  and 
a  leopard  ;  let  children  notice  the  most 
striking  Likenesses    and    differences; 

tell  the  name  of  the   smaller  animal. 

-The  leopard  abounds 

in  Africa  and  Southern  Asia.  Show  these  coun- 
tries on  a  large  globe;  let  children  tell  where 
lions  and  tigers  are  found. 

Size. —  He  is  smaller  than  the  tiger,  measuring 
about  three  feet  from  nose  to  rod  of  tail,  with  a 
tail  of  two  feet,  three  inches,  and  standing  some- 
what more  than  two  feet  high.  Compare  with  the 
picture  and  with  the  size  of   a  large  dog. 

Covering. —  He  has  a  beautiful  skin,  the  fur 
of  which  is  yellow  ou  the  upper  part  and  white  on 
the  under  parts,  breast,  and  inside  the  limbs.  It 
is  marked  with  black  spots:  those  on  the  head, 
neck,  hack  and  limbs  being  of  various  sizes, 
irregularly  dispersed,  while  those  on  the   sides   are 


as  well  as  strong  and  fierce,  and  by  stealth  will 
gain  admission  into  poultry-van's,  and  with  one 
swoop  destroy  all  the  fowls  roosting  therein.  The 
leopard  seldom  attacks  man,  and  when  he  does  so, 
it  is  by  stealth.  If  pursued,  and  brought  to  bay, 
he  will  tight  with  much  ferocity  and  courage.  The 
Africans  make  much  of  those  warriors  who  have 
killed  a  leopard. 

Movements. — The  leopard  is  extremely  agile  ; 
it  can  run,  leap  and  climb  well.  Compare  and 
contrast  with  lion,  tiger,  etc. 

Character. —  Leopards  are  fierce  and  blood- 
thirsty, crafty  and  sly.  They  may  be  tamed,  but 
can  never  lie  entirely  trusted.  They  lay  up  provi- 
sions for  the  future. 

Methods  of  Capture. —  The  leopard  is  some- 
times shot,  hut  is  generally  caught  in  pitfalls, 
which  are  slightly  covered  with  branches  of  trees, 


large,  consisting  of  small  ones  arranged  in  circles.  •>"  which  pieces  of  meat  are  placed. 

There  are  ten  rows  of  these  -pots.  Tell   any  other   anecdotes   that  you  may  know, 

Shape— His  form  is  particularly  graceful  and  ^  Ulustrate  the  leopard's  habits 
elegant. 


Head. —  This  is  smaller  in  proportion  than 
that  of  the  tiger ;  it  has  small  erect  ears,  bright 
eyes,  and  very  sharp  ln'l/i,  like  all  the  cat  tribe. 
Hi-  whiskers  are  long  and  white. 

Legs. —  These  resemble  the  tiger's,  and  have 

the   same  padded  feet  with  retractile  claws. 

Tail- —  Long  and  round,  gets  more  slender 
toward-  the  end. 

(  ompare  his  structure  with  that  of  the  domestic 
cat. 

Home. — He  lives  in  the  forests,  where  he  loves 
to  climb  the  tree-  and  catch  the  monkeys  and 
other  tree-lovihg  animals. 

Food- —  His  prey  consists  of  antelopes,  hares, 
monkeys,  sheep  and  cows.     He  is  sly  and  crafty, 


(  me  small  species  of  leopard  is  called  the  cheetah, 

and  is  tamed  and  used  for  hunting  in  India.  There 
is  also,  an  animal  called  the  leopard  cat  found  in 
these  same  countries,  anil  in  the  East  Indies, 
which  is  small,  like  the  cat,  and  spotted  like  the 
leopard,  thus  combining  the  two  animals. 

The  jniiil/ii-r  is  regarded  by  some  :is  :i  species  of 
leopard,  though  of  larger  size,  with  large  rini;- 
like  spots,  the  centre  darker  than  the  color  of  the 
body. 

Questions. — Its  size?  Shape?  Covering?  How 
it  may  be  known?  By  its  spots.  A  beast  of  prey 
Covered  with  Stripes ?  What  animal  in  this  land 
is  like  the  leopard?  In  what  is  the  cat  like  the 
leopard?  How  does  the  leopard  catch  its  prey? 
What  animals  are  caught  by  it?  Where  does  the 
leopard    live? 


82 


MODERN    METHODS. 


THE  POLAR   BEAR. 


NOTES  OF  LESSON  ON 

THE  POLAR  BEAR. 


INTRODUCTION.— Show  a  picture  or 
steucil  drawing  of  a  Polar  bear,  and 
ask  children  its  name. 

Use. —  For  its  Fur. —  This  is 
used  by  the  inhabitants  of  its  native 
land  to  make  clothing,  and  by  us  to  form 
rugs  for  carriages  or  rooms. 
General  Description. —  The  white  or  polar 
bear  is  a  very  large,  powerful  animal.  It  is 
about  nine  feet  long  from  the  nose  to  the  tail,#and 
stands  four  feet  high.  It  has  an  extremely  thick 
covering  of  silvery-white  fur,  tinged  with  yellow. 


Head. —  Small  for  the  size  of  its  body,  roundish 
with  a  pointed  nose.      Its  ears  are  small. 

Neck. —  Long  and  extremely  powerful. 

Body. —  Like  all  the  bears,  it  has  a  large, 
heavy  body. 

Legs. —  Longer  than  those  of  the  other  bears. 

FEEt. — It  has  soft,  padded  feet,  each  having  five 
toes,  furnished  with  strong  claws,  slightly  curved. 
Their  color  is  black  and  so  they  form  a  grea^ 
contrast  with  the  white  fur  that  falls  over  the  feet. 
The  bottoms  of  its  feet  are  covered  with  longish 
hair,    which    prevents    the    animal    from    slipping 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


83 


on  the  ice.  Tbeir  claws  are  not  able  to  be  drawn 
in  like  thr  cat's. 

Method. —  Compare  the  length  of  bear  with 
sonu'  part  of  the  school-room,  also  the  height  of 
bear  with  another  part.     Explain  that  it  has  such 

a  thick  covering  because  it  lives  in  very  cold 
regions. 

Lei  children  look  at  the  picture,  and  say  what 
kind  of  a  head  it  has.  They  will  notice  that  it 
has  a  gentle,  pleasing  countenance. 

Teacher  will  show  pictures  of  some  other  bears, 
and  let  children  notice  that  they  all  have  large, 
heavy  bodies.  They  continue  to  grow  until  they 
are  twenty  years  old,  and  even  after  that  they 
increase  in  bulk.  Still  the  Polar  bear  does  not 
get  as  heavy  as  some  bears  do.  but  is  very  swift- 
footed. 

Compare  the  neck  and  legs  of  this  bear  with 
those  of  other  bears. 

Where    Found. —  Polar    bears    love     icy-cold 

regions.  They  are  found  on  the  shores  of  North 
America,  and  are  sometimes  caught  on  pieces  of 
floating  ice.  which  come  southward.  When  kept 
in  shows  they  appear  to  suffer  greatly  from  the 
heat,  and  if  ice  be  placed  in  their  cages  they  will 
roll  upon  it  with  great  satisfaction. 

Method. —  Explain  that  they  are  called  Polar 
bears  because  they  live  near  the  Poles  ;  the  most 
northerly  and  southerly  points  of  the  globe.  The 
children  may  point  out  the  Poles  on  a  good-sized 
globe.  Describe  the  nature  of  this  bear's  home, 
covered  with  ice  and  snow  :  the  same  color  as  the 
bear. 

Food. —  This  bear,  unlike  other  bears,  lives 
entirely  upon  flesh.  Its  principal  food  is  dead 
whale-,  seals,  salmon,  and  other  fish.  They  are 
good  swimmers,  and  can  catch  both  seals  and  fish 
very  cleverly. 

Homes. —  They  live  on  the  sea-shore,  and 
seek  shelter  under  an  ice  lock,  or  burrow  amid  the 
snow.  The  build  themselves  a  Ik. Use  in  the  snow 
for  the  winter. 


Winter  Sleep. —  Like  all  bear-,  they  sleep 
through  the  winter,  requiring  no  food,  and  vet 
retaining  their  strength  and  size. 

Young  Ones. —  The  young  bears  ale  called 
cubs;  they  are  born  during  the  winter.  The 
mother  has  two  at  a  time,  and  is  strongly  at- 
tached to  thrni.  When  they  first  leave  their 
home  in  springtime  they  are  about  the  size  of 
Shepherd  does,  and  are  nice  and  fat. 

Character. —  When  hungry  they  will  attack 
a  man.  but  at  other  times  are  not  so  tierce  or  for- 
midable. The  mother  will  tight  fiercely  in  de- 
fence of  her  young. 


Method. —  Describe  the  manner  in  which  the 
bear  catches  seals  and  fish. 

Compare  the  homes  built  by  the  Polar  bear 
with  those  built  by  the  Esquimaux. 

Show  a  picture  of  some  cubs. 

Tell  one  or  two  anecdotes  of  bears,  particu- 
larly one  illustrating  their  love  for  their  young. 

Questions. —  What  is  this  gentle  looking  ani- 
mal called?  Why  called  Polar  bear?  Is  it  like 
the  bear  we  see  sometimes  iii  tin-  country? 
What  are  the  young  bears  called?  What  ani- 
mal- do  they  resemble  ? 


84 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NOTES  OF  LESSON  ON 


THE   RABBIT. 


BLACK- BOARD  drawing  of  the  rabbit 
will  be  needed,  or,  even  better,  when 
judiciously  used,  a  living  rabbit  may 
be  employed  with  advantage  for  illus- 
ration. 

^  General  Description. —  First  show 

the  picture  or  specimen,  and  speak  in  gen- 
eral terms  of  the  chief  points  of  structure  —  its 
pretty  appearance;  its  soft,  furry  covering;  the 
bright,  large  eye.  long  ears ;  its  gentle  timid 
nature,  so  easily  frightened  when  wild,  running  off 
to  hide  itself  as  one  gets  near,  etc.  Then  speak 
of  where  and  how  it  lues.  Children  often  see 
rabbits  as  kept  in  their  homes  or  the  homes  of 
neighbors.  These  are  fame.  Why  so  kept? 
They  are  pretty  to  look  at  and  easily  attended  to. 
From  them  we  may  learn  something  about — 

Wild  Rabbits. —  Children  living  in  the  coun- 
try often  see  them.  Where  should  we  look  for 
them?  In  fields  and  woods.  Early  in  the  morn- 
ing, or  as  evening  conies  (in,  they  may  be  seen 
running  in  the  grass,  or  in  the  fields.  They  are 
busy  cropping  the  grass,  munching  the  turnips, 
sometimes  getting  into  the  gardens.  What  they 
seek  there.  What  their  food  is.  The  mischief 
they  often  do  by    eating    the   young    crops,    etc. 


How  pretty  they  look  ;  how  watchful  they  are ; 
how  quick  to  see,  to  hear,  if  we  go  near,  or  if  any 
noise  be  made  how  quickly  they  scamper  off. 
They  are  all  soon  out  of  sight.  Where  do  they 
go?  They  run  into  holes  in  tin'  ground.  Des- 
cribe how  they  scrape  away  the  earth  with  their 
strong  feet  and  sharp  nails  at  the  end  of  the  toes. 
The  long,  underground  burrow;  a  number  of  these 
winding  paths  near  together  make  a  warren  ?  What, 
then,  is  a  warren?  What  is  a  burrow?  How  is 
the  burrow  made?  Explain  that  these  are  dug 
usually  in  loose,  sandy  soil,  though  sometimes 
made  in  the  earthy  parts,  among  rocks  and   stones. 

Form  and  Parts  of  a  Rabbit. —  By  help 
of  picture  and  specimen  describe  she  and  gen- 
eral form.  Round  head;  shortish,  round  body, 
small  upturned  tail  :  the  four  legs,  the  hinder 
longer  than  the  two  fore  legs;  the  covering  of  soft, 
warm,  brownish-gray  fur,  etc. 

The  Head,  round,  moving  quickly  on  the  short, 
thick  neck  ;  the  eyes  large  ;  where  placed,  standing 
well  out.  Why  this  is,  what  it  enables  the  rabbit 
to  do;  the  long  ears,  how  they  hang;  their  quick 
motion,  and  reason  of  this;  the  mouth  and  teeth; 
show  clearly  the  four  front  teeth  :  two  above,  two 
below,  shaped  like  sharp  chisels;  their  nibbfaig 
action,  how  used,  other  animals  like  them.  Bark 
of  trees,  young  wood,  turnips,  grass,  etc,  all 
nibbled  in  the  same  way. 

Body  and  Tail.  Describe  again.  Different 
appearance  when  running,  sitting,  etc.  The  cover- 
ing. Difference  of  color  in  wild  rabbits  and  many 
lame  ones  ;  the  later  often  mliite,  black,  or  spotted, 
or  rich  brown  color. 

Feet  and  Legs.  Shape,  four  toes  on  each 
foot,  ending  in  the  strong  nail ;  use  of  this  in  bur- 
rowing. 

The  rabbit  is  timid,  caught  in  traps,  or  shot ;  their 
flesh  is  used  for  food,  and  the  skin  for  cheap  furs, 
etc.      Many  birds,  and  beasts  of  prey  also  catc 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


•H5 


the  rabbit  and  feed  on  them.  The  quick  sight  and  and  the  upper  surface  of  the  tail  has  nol  that 
hearing  and  running,  enable  the  rabbit  often  to  brown  color  found  in  the  rabbit.  It  does  not  hide 
escape  from  danger. 

The  hare  belongs  to   the   Bame  family  as   the 
rabbit,  and  although  resembling  the  latter  in  many 


points,  may  l>e  easily  distinguished   by  having  a 
longer  head  aud  ears;   the   ears  with  a    black  tip, 


in  burrows  like  the  rabbit,  but,  trusts  to   it-   greal 
speed  to  elude  its  numerous  enemies. 

Questions. —  Have  we  any  use  tor  rabbits? 
Why  do  we  keep  them  sometimes  ?  Have  you  ever 
seeu  oue?     Is  the  rabbit  a  fierce  animal? 


86 


MODERN    METHODS. 


GROUP  OF  APES  AND  MONKEYS   AND  A   LEMl'R. 


X0TB8  OF  LESSO.X  O.V 


THE    MONKEY. 


iENERAL  DESCRIPTION.  —  Show  a 
good  picture  or  drawing  of  the  mon- 
key. Use  it  throughout  the  descrip- 
tion to  illustrate  the  various  points 
gC£>T  referred  to.  Describe  in  the  usual  way 
its  general  form  and  appearance.  It  is 
more  like  a  man  than  any  other  animal  is. 
Call  attention  to  its  head,  body  and  limbs.  It  has 
two  arms  and  two  leus.  At  the  end  of  each  arm 
is  a  hand.  Some  have  a  thumb  as  well  as  fingers. 
How  is  the  thumb  of  our  hand  put?     At  the  side 


of  the  fingers,  but  we  can  move  it  opposite  to 
them.  Some  monkeys  have  no  thumb.  What  is 
at  the  end  of  the  leg?  At  first  it  looks  like  a  foot. 
It  is  really  more  like  the  hand.  So  the  monkey 
I  is  four-handed.  We  use  the  foot  only  for  walk- 
ing ;  we  use  tiie  hand  for  holding  or  grasping. 
The  monkey  grasps  or  holds  with  its  four  hands. 
Note  next  its  covering.  It  is  hairy.  The  larger 
kinds  are  covered  with  stout,  coarse  hair.  The 
smaller  with  soft,  silky  hair,  more  like  fur.  Look 
next    at    the    face  and  head.     The  nose  and  the 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


87 


mouth  are  stretched  out,  and  somewhat  pointed. 
Many  are  more  like  the  nose  and  mouth  of  a  dog 
than  of  a  man.  The  monkey  1ms  a  tail.  There 
are  kinds  of  monkeys  without  a  tail.  These  have 
a  different  name.  They  are  called  apes.  What 
is  the  difference  between  a  monkey  and  an  ape? 
The  monkey  lias  a  tail.      The  ape  has  no  tail. 

Where  and  How  Monkeys  Live. — Their 
Ways.  —  Most  of  the  children  have  probably 
seen  a  monkey.     Ask  when-.     What  it  was  doing, 

etc.  Prom  this  teach  that  the  home  of  the  mon- 
key is  in  far-off  lands.  They  live  in  hot  countries, 
only  in  different  parts  of  the  \vorld.  They  may 
have  seen  a  monkey  climbing  ami  jumping 
actively  about.  This  will  lead  to  a  description  of 
the  monkey  in  its  own  home.  Picture  vividly  the 
great  forests;  the  large  numbers  of  monkeys  to  lie 
seen  in  thi'  boughs  ami  at  the  tops  of  the  trees  ; 
their  quick  and  active  movements;  the  wonderful 
jumps  they  take  from  one  branch  or  tree  to 
another:  the  strange  noises  they  make;  their 
funny,  mischievous  ways  :  the  curious  ways  they 
have  of  imitating  what  they  see.  etc.  They  hold 
fast  to  the  branch  by  their  hand,  and  swing  from 
bough  to  bough  :  >ome  even  twist  the  end  of  the 
tail  round  a  branch  and  swing  by  it. 

Lemur. —  The  lemur  is   a  species  of   monkey. 


hut  of  small  size,  having  a  sharp  muzzle  like  the 
fox,  and  large  eyes.  They  feed  upon  birds,  in- 
sects and  fruit.  Are  mostly  found  in  Madagascar 
and  the  neighboring  islands,  one  species  particu- 
larly in  Africa,  the  cat  lemur  being  about  the 
size  of  that  animal,  and  another  the  size  of  a 
mouse. 

Kinds  of  Monkeys.  —  There   are  monkeys 

which  live  always  in  the  trees,  seldom  coming  to 
the  ground,  others  live  chiefly  on  the  ground, 
among  the  rocks  and  hills.  Some  are  huge  and 
strong  and  Serce  :  Others  arc  small  and  gentle,  and 
playful  in  their  ways.  Some  walk  on  all  their 
hands,  as  dugs  and  horses  do  on  all  their  feet. 

Their  Food. — They  eat  the  fruit,  leaves 
and  twigs  of  many  different  sorts  of  trees  and 
other  plants.  They  climb  the  tall  cocoa-nut  trees 
and  take  the  nuts.  Also  the  dates  from  the  date 
palm.  Some  also  eat  insects,  the  eggs  of  birds, 
etc.  They  get  into  the  rice  Melds  and  amongst  the 
sugar-canes,  and  do  mischief  in  many  ways  in  the 
gardens  and  fields  which  may  Lie  planted  near 
their  homes. 

Questions.  —  What  animal  is  most  like  man1' 
In  what  way  does  it  resemble  us?  Have  you  ever 
seen  a  monkey?  What  are  its  habits?  Food, 
etc.  ?     Are  they  mischievous?     In  what  ways? 


88 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NATURAL   BISTORT! 


89 


VOTES  OF  LBSSOX  ON 


THE  HORSE. 


Introduction.— Refer  to  what  the 

children  see  and  know  of  horses  as 
seen  day  by  day.  In  towns  ami  cities 
the  great  numbers  Been,  drawing  carts, 
wagons,  carriages,  etc.  All  are  at 
cork.  They  differ  in  size,  and  strength 
and  color.  Which  kind  of  work  will  need 
the  strongest?  Why?  Which  needs  the  quick- 
est? Note  the  difference  between  the  stout, 
strong  cart-horse,  the  more  slender  carriage-horse, 
the  delicate  race-horse.  How  strong  the  horse  is! 
How  fast  and  long  it  can  run.  Vet  it  is  gentle, 
and  generally  quiet.  It  will  not  harm  a  child. 
On  its  feet  are  iron  shoo.  Why  are  they  there? 
How  are  they  fastened?  Why  do  not  the  nails 
hurt  its  foot  ? 

Description  of  the  Horse. —  show  pict- 
ures of  horses.  Describe  and  elicit  its  general 
shop* .  size,  appearance.  The  large  long  body,  the 
wide  neck,  the  large  long  head.  Its  legs  strong 
and  linn.  The  horny  hoof,  the  mane.  Where 
placed.  The  tail,  when  left  to  grow  as  it  will. 
long  and  bushy.  Sometimes  it  is  cut  short.  The 
ears  pointed  and  movable.  It  can  hear  quickly. 
The  eyes  large;  placed  high.  It  can  see  a  long 
way.  The  nostrils  wide  ;  it  can  smell  quickly. 
Ill  the  mouth  are  the  teeth  and  the  tongue.  The 
front  teeth  are  long  and  sharp.  Between  them 
and  the  back  teeth  is  a  large  space.  Here  is 
where  the  bit  is  placed.  What  is  it  made  of.  and 
its  use.  The  hack  teeth  are  broad  and  sharp. 
With  the  front  teeth  it  cuts  its  food;  with  the 
tack  it  grinds  it.  What  is  the  body  covered 
with?  The  hair  is  short,  soft,  close,  of  different 
colors.  The  horse  can  walk,  trot,  gallop.  The 
differences  of  these? 

Its  voice  is  called  neighing. 

Habits,  Food,  etc — There  are  wild  horses 

in    some  places.     These    live    many  together,   as 


sheep  and  cows  do.  Such  a  number  is  call 
herd.  What  other  animal-  live  in  herd-?  What 
is  a  number  of  sheep  called?  In  most  lands  all 
horses  are  tame.  They  are  kept  for  the  work 
they  do.  What  food  do  they  eat?  Grass,  hay, 
oats,  turnips, etc.  What  one  name  may  In'  given 
to  these?  'I'll'  horse  feeds  on  vegetables.  Other 
tame  animals  which  do  so?  Other  wild  animals? 
Name  some  that  feed  on  flesh,  What  i-  the  place 
called  in  which  the  hoi-e  lives.-  In  the  stable  are 
a  rack  for  hay.  a  trough  for  corn,  a  pail  for  water, 
straw  to  lie  upon.  The  young  horse  is  a  colt; 
when  very  young  a  foal.  Horses  are  named 
according  to  the  work  they  do.  There  are  cart- 
horses, carriage-horses,  race-horses,  etc.  In  all 
times  and  places  men  have  made  use  of  the  ho 

Think  of  the  many  ways  in  which  they  are  of 
use.     In  the  country;  in  /<"'■//. 

Use  When  Dead- — The  skin  is  made  into 
leather.  For  this  it  has  to  be  tanned.  The  hair 
is  used  for   stuffing    cushions,  chairs,  and   sofas. 

The  long  hair  of  th  •  tail  is  woven  into  horsehair 
cloth.  Its  hoof  makes  glue.  The  fat  for  soap. 
The  bones  for   knife-handles   or   burnt  for  manure. 

Revision. —  Let  Ihe  horse  be  the  subjeel  for 
the  next  composition  exercise,  the  children,  mean- 
while, finding  out  all  they  can  about  horses. 
When  practical,  they  may  illustrate  their  compo- 
sitions with  an  outline  drawing  of  a  horse. 
Memory  Gems  will  also  be  in  order. 

—  V  S.    EDWAttDS 


,\  man  of  kindness  to  Ms  beast  is  kind, 
But  brutal  actions  show  a  brutal  mind; 
Remember  He  who  made  thee,  made  the  brute; 
who  nave  thee  speech  and  reason  formed  him  mute. 
//-  can't  complain,  but  God's  all-seeing  eye 
B  holds  thy  cruelty,  and  hears  ftfs  cry: 
He  was  designed  thy  servant,  aot  thy  drudge; 
And  know  that  His  Creator  Is  thy  Judge." 

— ANON. 


90 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NATURAL    HISTORY 


91 


NOTES  OF  l  EtiSON  OH 

cows. 


NTRODUCTION. —  Show  pictures  or 
black-board  drawings  of  cows  and 
lei  children  give  name.  After  this 
-how  others  of  the  tribe  —  zebu, 
buffalo,  bison,  yak  and  musk  ox,  and 
tell  them  that  all  these  animals  belong 
to  one  family  and  are  much  alike  in  uses  and 
habits,  though  they  live  in  different  parts  of  the 
world. 

Where  Found. —  Some  animals  of  the  cow 
kind  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  world.  We 
have  the  ox  and  buffalo.  The  zebu  lives  in  India, 
China,  and  Eastern  Africa,  the  yak  in  the  moun- 
tainous parts  of  Central  Asia,  and  the  musk  ox  in 
the  extreme  north  of  America.  Show  these  coun- 
tries on  a  globe  or  map. 

Size. —  All  the  animals  of  this  family  are  large 
in  size,  except  the  yak  and  musk-ox.  Our  own 
oxen  reach  a  very  large  size,  but  are  surpassed  by 
the  buffaloes. 

Covering. —  Most  of  those  animals  are  covered 

with  short  hair.  In  our  own  cows  the  color  may 
be  white,  brown,  black,  or  mixed.  Bisons  and 
buffaloes  are  dark  brown  or  black,  with  a  lot  of 
long  hair  around  the  head  and  neck  ;  the  :<-'/"  is  a 
pah-  gray  or  cream  color:  the  yak  has  long,  black 
hair,  that  on  the  hump,  mane,  ami  tail  being  nearly 
white;  the  musk  ".'•.  who  lives  in  cold  regions,  has 
a  hugh  mass  of  wooly  hair  of  a  yellowish-brown 
color. 

Body. —  The  bodies  of  these  animals  are  Large 
and  heavy,  several  species  being  furnished  with 
humps,  <■■  ./..  the  zebu,  bison,  buffalo&nCl  yak. 

Legs. —  Generally  speaking,  the  leg-  are  short 
and  thick,  with  cloven  hoof-. 

Head. —  This  is  huge,  with  fine,  fierce  eyes,  and 
horns  of  different  shape-,  those  of  the  bison  and 
buffalo  being  very  formidable.  The  neck  is  usually 
short  and  thick. 


Food. —  All  the  animals  of  the  ox  tribe  eat 
grass  and  other  vegetables,  chewing  the  cud  as 
described  in  the  Lessons  on  ••  Ruminants."     The 

domestic  cattle  are   fed   on   hay.    turnips,   carrot-. 
etc..  iii  the  w  inter  time. 

Character. —  These  animals  are  naturally 
fierce  and  courageous.  When  wild  they  are. 
especially  the  buffaloes  and  bisons,  very  formid- 
able, lint  when  tamed  become  most  useful  to  man. 

Uses. —  As  a  class  these  animals  stand  first 
for  usefulness.  One  member  of  the  family  at 
Least  i-  found  in  nearly  every  country,  where  its 
u-es  are  much  like  those  of  our  own  species,  the 
dome-tic  cow.       Its  u-es  are: — 

To  Give  Milk. —  This  is  abundant,  rich  and 
nourishing. 

To  Labor. —  In  many  parts  oxen  are  still  used 
to  draw  tin'  plough  or  wagon. 

To  Provide  Food. —  Its  flesh  furnishes  us  with 
one  of  the  most  savory  and  nourishing  of  our 
animal  foods. 

To  Give  Horn. —  Which  furnishes  material  for 
making  the  handles  of  knives  and  forks,  and  many 
other  tilings. 

To  Give  Hide. —  Its  skm  or  hide  is  thick,  and 
makes  most  durable  leather. 

To  Furnish  Glue. — This  Bubstance  is  made 
from  its  hoof-,  cars,  and  hide  parings. 

To  Give  Hair. —  This  is  used  to  mix  with 
plaster  for  building. 

To  Furnish  Animal  Charcoal. —  This  i- 
ODtained  from  its  bone-. 

Questions. —  What  do  we  get  from  oxen? 
Which  of  the  oxen  family  is  most  useful  ?  To 
what  class  do  oxen  belong?  And  to  what  tribe? 
How  do  they  rank  with  other  animals  in  point  of 
usefulness?     Tell  some  anecdotes  of  a  cow?     Of 

a  buffalo?       Where  docs  the  zebu   live?       Which    is 
'he  Larger  animal,  the  bull  or  the  buffalo? 


NAT!  UAL    HISTORY. 


<J3 


NOTES  OF   LESSON  O.V 


THE  HIPPOPOTAMUS. 


INTRODUCTION. —  Show  n  picture  or 
drawing    of  the    annual,    and   ask     or 

tell  its  name.    Let  the  children  look  at 
a  picture  of  the  elephant,  comparing' 
and  contrasting  the  two. 

Where    Found. —  The    hippopotamus 

lives  in  Africa,  being  found  near  large  rivers, 
e.  </.,  the  Nile,  the  Niger,  the  Gambia,  and  also  near 
the  large  lakes.  Children  find  these  rivers  on  a  map 
of  Africa.     Describe  the   nature  of  the  country, 

particularly  the  luxuriant  vegetation  on  the  hanks 
of  the  rivers. 

Uses.  —  Its  large  canine  teeth,  or  tusks,  are  very 
valuable  for  making  artificial  teetli  because  the 
ivory  does  not  turn  yellow. 

Prs  Flesh, — is  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of 
Africa.  The  fat  resembles  lard,  and  the  choice 
morsels  are  the  feet  and  the  tongue. 

Its  Skin. —  being  very  thick  and  tough,  is   used 


Point  to  the  different  parts  of  the  animal  as 
they  are  named,  and  make  children  notice  them 
well  ;  compare  and  contrast  with  corresponding 
features  of  the  elephant.  Compare  the  lengths 
given  with  familiar  objects.  Explain  tin'  word 
compn  ssi  <'. 

Habits. —  The  hippopotamus  is  amphibious  in 
its  habits,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  River 
Horse.  It  spends  most  of  its  time  in  the  water,  is 
an  admirable  swimmer  and  diver,  can  sink  at 
will,  and  walk  along  the  bottom  of  the  lake  or 
river. 

Its  sleeping  place  is  generally  a  muddy  island 
overgrown  with  reeds. 

It  has  an  enormous  appetite,  and  subsists  en- 
tirely on  vegetable  food.  On  the  banks  of  the 
"Nile  he  sometimes  tramples  and  eats  whole  fields 
of  grain  ami  sugar-cane. 

The  hippopotamus  make  a  squeak  when  young, 


by  the  natives  for  making  shields,  ami   by  the   in-  but  when  grown  his  voice  is  loud  and  terrible. 

habitants  of  Cape  Colony  for  making  whips.  On  account  of   the  great  weight  of  his  body, 

Compare  with  the  uses  of  the  elephant.  and  the  shortness  of   his  legs,  he  cannot  run   fast, 

„,.                       .,.,                                   ...              .  but  takes  to  the  water  on  the  approach  of  danger. 

Structure. —  I  he    average   size   01  these  am- 

mals  is  five  feet  high  and  eleven  fee,   long,  but  Character.- The  strength   of  this  animal    is 

ones    are    sometimes    seventeen    fee,    long,  enormous,  but  its  disposition  is  mild,  and  gentle 

seven  feet  high,  and  sixteen  feet  round   the   body.  «oeP*    UDder    Slv;lt    [""vocation.      He    has    been 

Covering.—  The  .kin  is  very  thick  and  of  a  known  t0  bite  Sreat  Piecea  "",  of  boats'  ;""'  to 

dusky  color:  it  is  thinly  covered  with  very  short,  raise  one  containing  six  men  and  throw  ,t  into  the 

whitish   hairs.      The    pores    of   the    skin   exude    a  air"      These  animals  are   gregarious,   collecting   m 

thick,    oily    fluid,   which  keeps  the  animals  from  herds  of  twenty  or  thhty. 

taking  cold  in  the  water.  Means     of     Capture.  —  Bv     Peas. — The 

Apia  lrance. —  The    hippopotamus    in     figure  Egyptians  throw  a  quantity  of  dry  peas  in  their 

Brightly  resembles  an  unwieldy  ox.  way.     The  animals  eat   them,  and  drink  a  quan- 

lii  \i>. —  This    is     large,    with    small    eyes    and  tity  of  water,  when  the   peas   swell   and  cause  the 

small,   pointed  ears,  a  very   wide   mouth,   contain-  death  of  the  creatures. 

ing  very  large  teeth,  and  having  thick,  broad  lips  Bv  Traps. —  They  are  sometimes  caught  in  pit- 
furnished  with  tufts  of  short  bristles.  falls,  or  by  injuring  their   feel   upon  spikes  driven 

Body. —  This  is  large  ami  bulky.  into  boards  for  that  purpose. 

Legs. —  Short  and  thick,  with  large  feet,  having  By  Harpooning.  —  This  is  common  in  Africa, 

four  toes  encased  iii  hoofs.  but  is  dangerous. 


94 


MODERN    METHODS 


THt   INDIAN    RIIINUCEltO; 


NOTES   OFLESSOA    OX 


THE   RHINOCEROS. 


SNTRODUCTION.—  Show  a  picture  of 
the  rhinoceros,  contrast  it  with  those 
of  the  elephant  ami  hippopotamus, 
and  tell  its  name. 

Where  Found. —  The  rhinoceros 
lives  in  India.  Java.  Sumatra  and  Africa. 
Let  children  find  these  places  on  the  globe  ; 
explain  that  they  are  all  warm  countries. 

Description.  —  Size.  —  A  full-sized  animal 
stands  rather  more  than  five  feet  high.  Though 
they  are  not  very  tall,  they  have  large,  powerful 
bodies  like  the  elephant  and  hippopotamus. 

Covering. — The  rhinoceros  is  covered  with  a 
remarkably  thick  skin,  which  lies  in  heavy  folds 
around  the  neck,  shoulders,  and  hind  quarters  of 
the  Asiatic  species. 

Head.  —  This  is  somewhat  long  in  shape,  with 
the  upper  lip  hanging  over  the  lower.     This  lip  is 


capable  of  considerable  extension,  and  is  slightly 
prehensile. 

Some  species  have  two  horns,  while  others  have 
only  one.  They  are  of  peculiar  formation,  grow- 
ing on  the  skin,  and  being  composed  of  a  fibrous, 
horny  substance,  as  hard  as  iron. 

The  eyes  are  very  small,  and  the  animal  has  de- 
fective sight. 

The  ears  are  erect  and  pointed.  The  senses  of 
smelling  and  hearing  are  both  very  keen.  The 
legs  are  short  and  thick.  The  feet  possess  three 
toes  each,  encased  in  hoofs.  The  tail  is  slender, 
flat  at  the  end,  and  furnished  at  the  sides  with 
very  stiff,  black  hairs. 

Habits. —  Home. —  Their  favorite  haunts  are 
swamps  and  marshy  plains,  where  they  wander 
solitary,  seldom  in  pairs.  They  love  to  roll  in  the 
soft   mud,  because   it  kills  the  insects  which  get 


NATL- HAL   HISTORY. 


95 


under  the  folds  of  their  skin,  and  annoy  them 
very  ranch. 

Food. —  The  appetite  of  these  auimals  is  glut- 
tonous. Their  food  consists  principally  of  herbs, 
particularly  the  succulent  roots,  which  they  dig  up 
with  their  horns. 

Character. —  The  rhinoceros  is  quiet,  if  un- 
disturbed, but  when  roused,  furious  and  formid- 
able, the  elephant  himself  being  hardly  an  equal 
antagonist.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  unicorn 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  possesses  all  the  rage, 
untameableness,  swiftness,  and  strength  ascribed 
to  that  animal.  The  Asiatic  species  are  capable 
of  being  tamed,  and  are  sometimes  ridden  like  the 
elephant. 

Uses. —  The  chief  use  of  this  animal  is  to  sup- 
ply leather  for  making  shields.  Its  flesh,  which 
resembles  pork,  is  sometimes  eaten,  and  in  Java 
it  has  been  trained  to  bear  a  saddle,  and  to  be 
ridden. 

Kinds.  —  Indian  Rhinoceros.  —  This  has 
one  horn,  short,  and  thick,  with  its  skin  in  very 
heavy  folds. 

Javanese  Rhinoceros.  —  This  species  is 
found  in  Java.  Sumatra  and  Borneo.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Indian  oue  by  its  smaller  size, 
and  its  lesser  skin  folds.  Its  horn  is  shorter, 
and  its  legs  louger.  and  more  slender. 

African  Rhinoceroses. —  There  are  four 
chief  species  in  Africa,  two  being  black,  viz..  the 
Borele  and  the  Keitloa.  Both  have  two  horns. 
In  the  former,  the  second  horn  is  longer,  and  bent 
backwards,  while  in  the  latter,  both  horns  are  of 
considerable  and  nearly  equal  length.  The  skin 
has  no  heavy  folds,  and  both  are  very  savage, 
dangerous  animals.  The  two  white  species  are 
larger  than  the  black  ones,  and  have  long  horns. 

Questions. —  The  rhinoceros  belongs  to  what 
species    of    animals?     What    disposition    has    it? 


What  does  the  word  prehensile  mean?  Describe 
the  head  and  horns  of  the  rhinoceros.  How  many 
kinds  are  found  in  Africa?     Describe  them. 

Gordon  dimming,  in  his  ••Hunter's  Life  in 
South  Africa  "  gives  the  following  details  of  I  lie 
rhinoceros : — 

"  Both  varieties  of  the  black  rhinoceros  are  ex- 
tremely tierce  and  dangerous,  ami  rush  headlong 
at  any  object  that  attracts  their  attention.  Their 
horns  are  much  shorter  than  those  of  the  other 
varieties,  and  finely-polished  with  constant  rubbing 
against  the  trees.  The  horns  are  not  connected 
with  the  skull,  being  attached  merely  by  the  skin, 
and  they  may  thus  l>e  separated  from  the  head  by 
means  of  a  sharp  knife.  They  are  hard  and  solid 
throughout,  and  are  tine  material  for  various  arti- 
cles, such  as  drinking  cups,  mallets  for  rifles, 
handles  for  tools,  etc.,  etc. 

The  eyes  of  the  rhinoceros  are  small  and  spark- 
ling and  do  not  readily  perceive  the  hunter,  pro- 
vided he  keep  to  leeward  of  them.  The  skin  is 
extremely  thick,  and  only  to  be  penetrated  by  bul- 
lets hardened  witli  solder. 

Both  varieties  of  the  black  rhinoceros  are  much 
smaller  and  more  active  than  the  white,  and  are  so 
swift  that  a  horse  with  a  rider  on  his  back  can 
rarely  overtake  them. 

The  white  rhinoceros  attains  an  enormous  size, 
feeds  solely  on  grass,  carries  much  fat,  and  their 
tlesh  is  excellent,  being  preferable  to  beef.  They 
are  of  a  much  milder  disposition  and  more  inoffen- 
sive than  the  black  rhinoceros,  ami  rarely  eh. 
the  pursuers.  Their  speed  is  very  inferior  to  that 
of  the  other  varieties  and  a  person  well  mounted 
can  overtake  and  shoot  them. 

The  head  is  a  foot  longer  than  that  of  the 
Boivle ;  they  generally  carry  their  heads  low, 
whereas  the  Borele,  when  disturbed,  carries  his 
very  high. 

1'nlike  the  elephants,  they  never  assooiate  iu 
herds,  but  are  met  singly,  or   iu  pairs. 


96 


MODERN  METHODS. 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


97 


NOTES  OP  LESSON  OX 


THE  TORTOISE. 


HOW  a  picture  or  black-board  drawing 
of  a  tortoise,  ami  ask  or  tell  its  name. 
Kinds. —  The    name    tortoise    in- 
cludes several  different  species,  some 
of  which  live  on    land    and    some    in 
water      All  have  an  outer  framework   of 
shell.      Some  that  live  in   water  are  called 
turtles. 

Common  Tortoises — found  in  ponds,  lakes,  or 
marshy  grounds. 

Terrapins  — which   live    in    water,     generally 
rivers. 


Eggs. —  Turtles  lay  their  eggs  on  the  shore. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  the  lien's,  but  have  no 
shell.     They  are  agreeable  and  nutritious. 

Size. —  Very  various.  Some  hi  nil  tortoises  are 
from  one  font  tojivefeet  long,  and  fromj/Jve  inches 
to  a,  font  and  a-half  across  the  back.  The  tortoise 
is  small  —  about  ten  im-hi-x  long.  The  green  turtle 
is  found  as  large  as  seven  feet  long,  weighing  from 
seven  to  eight  hundred  //omuls.  The  hawJcsbill  turtle. 
is  not  so  large. 

Structure. —  The  shell  of  this  reptile  is  com- 
posed of  bones,  which  are  thus  placed  outside  its 
body  instead  of  inside.  The  head,  neck,  tail,  and 
four  feet  project.  Most  of  these  can  be  drawn  in 
at  pleasure.  They  have  no  teeth,  but  a  horny 
substance  instead.  The  shell  of  the  land  tortoise 
is  arched,  and  so  strong  that  a  team  may  pass 
over  it  without  doing  it  any  injury.  The  terrapins 
have  webbed  toes. 

Habits. —  Food. —  The  land  tortoise  is  a  vege- 
tarian, eating  grass  and  various  plants,  including 
lettuces,  nf  which  it  is  very  fond.  It  will  drink 
milk.  It  lives  to  :i  grcal  age.  Some  of  the  other 
tortoises  eat  flesh,  but  the  green  turtle  feeds  on  sea- 
weed at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 

( Ine  kind  of  tortoise  lives  to  a  greal  age.     It  has  a 

curious  voice,  not  unlike  the  mewing  of   a  cat.      It 

-so  called  from  the  shape  is  fon(1  (lt-  warmth,  and  if  kept  in  a  house   will 

of    the    mouth,   lives    in    the    warm    America   and   love  to  sit   on   the   hearthrug   in   front  of  the   tire. 

Indian  seas.  jf  ]<(.[,t  out  of  doors  it  will  burrow  under  the  mould 

Green  Turtle — so  called  from  the   color  of  :lt  t|It.  enc]  0f   autumn,  and  wait  there  until  the 

the  fat.  warm  days  of  spring.     It  does  not  like  rain,   and 

Shell. —  The  shell   of   the  hawksbill   turtle  is  whenever  a  shower  comes  it  will  hide  itself,  and 

used    to    make     combs,    handles     for    pen-knives,    with  retracted  head  ami  limbs   wait   until   the   rain 

boxes,  etc.     It  is  called  tortoise-shell.  ceases.     People  keep  this  kind  of  tortoise  asa  pit. 

Flesh. —  Tin-    flesh   of   all   tortoises  is  eaten.       Questions. —  Can  you  tell  me  anything  about 

though  that  of  the  turtle  is  considered  the  richest,    the  tortoise  ?     What  does  the  name  include  ?     Mcn- 

The    flesh    of    the    Inml    tortoise    is    eaten     in    the    tion  some  of   the  tortoise   species,    and    the    reason 

'an  Isles.     A  famous  aoup  is  made  of  turtle'-  for  their  names.     What  are  turtles?     What    are 
flesh.  they  goodfor?     Describe  the  voice  of  the  tortoise? 


Hawksbill  Turtle 


98 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


XOTES  OF  LESSOX  OX 


THE  RAT  AND    HIS   RELATIVES. 


'OST  children  will  have  seen  a  rabbit,  a 
rat,  a  mouse,  or  a  squirrel  in  the  act 
of  feeding,  and  may  possibly  have 
noticed  the  large  front  teeth  with 
which  these  animals  gnaw.  Now  all 
the  animals  in  the  world  —  and  there  are 
an  immense  number — which  have  four 
large,  front  teeth,  suitable  for  gnawing,  like  the  rat 
or  the  rabbit,  are  included  in  one  great  group  and 
called  rodents,viz.  :  gnawing  animals.  The  rabbits, 
squirrels,  rats,  mice,  beavers  and  prairie  dogs,  are 
chief  members  of  the  group  living  in  this  country. 
Their  chief  foreign  relatives  are  the  marmots, 
hamsters,  lemmings,  jerboas,  porcupines,  and  the 
chinchillas. 

Teeth  of  Rodents. —  The  rodents  may  and  do 
differ  very  much  in  other  particulars,  but  in  the 
structure  and  use  of  the  teeth  they  are  all  alike. 
The  teacher  will  no  doubt  be  able  to  show  the 
teeth,  if  not  in  the  living  animal,  at  least  in  the 
skull  and  jaws  of  a  rabbit.  The  teeth  are  of  two 
kinds  only,  the  grinders  and  the  cutters. 

The  surface  of  the  grinders  presents  a  rasp-like 
appearance,  from  the  plates  of  enamel,  which 
stand  up  in  ridges  above  the  softer  dentine. 

The  cutters,  or  incisors,  are  four  in  number,  Uvo' 
above  and  two  below.  They  are  strong,  sharp 
chisels.  Mice  can  gnaw  through  boards,  rats  have 
been  known  to  cut  through  leaden  pipes,  and 
beavers  cut  down  trees.  Unless  some  special  pro- 
vision were  made,  teeth  used  jn  this  way  would 


soon  get  blunt  and  useless.  To  prevent  this  the 
outer  or  front  surface  of  each  tooth  is  covered 
with  a  thin  plate  of  very  hard  enamel,  while  the 
ether  part  of  the  tooth  is  made  of  bony  matter, 
and  is  much  softer.  As  the  tooth  is  used  the 
bony  matter  wears  away  more  quickly  than  the 
enamel,  and  the  latter  is  left  as  a  thin  cutting 
edge.  Yet  another  provision  is  necessary.  The 
carpenter's  chisel  wears  away  in  time,  and  so 
would  the  rodent's  tooth  ;  but  for  the  fact  that  just 
as  fast  as  it  is  worn  away  above,  it  grows  and  is 
pushed  up  from  below. 

It  is  necessary  also  for  the  purpose  of  gnawing 
that  the  lower  jaw  should  be  so  jointed  to  the 
upper  as  to  allow  of  motion  backwards  and  for- 
wards.  The  food,  cut  into  slices  with  the  front 
teeth  has  to  be  ground  with  the  molars  ;  hence  the 
jaws  have  a  second,  a  grinding  motion,  like  the 
cow  or  the  horse. 

Other  Common  Features. —  All  rodents 
have  feelers  in  the  shape  of  whiskers,  like  the  cat. 
[Question  on  and  point  out  their  uses.]  The  feet 
usually  have  five  toes,  armed  with  claws,  some  of 
which  are  sharp,  curved,  and  pointed  for  climbing, 
the  others  blunt  and  strong  for  burrowing.  The 
number  of  toes  is  sometimes  reduced  to  four,  or 
even  three,  on  the  hinder  limbs.  In  the  mouse 
family  there  are  four  toes  on  the  front  leg,  and 
five  behind.  In  the  great  majority  the  fore-paws 
are  used  to  some  extent  as  hands.  [Instance 
squirrel  with  nut.]     The  majority  of  rodents  are 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


99 


nocturnal,  and  borrowing  animals;   and  many  of 
them  hibernate. 
Special  Points  in  Structure  or  Habit. — 

Rat. —  The  foot  of  the  rat  is  jointed  so  loosely  to 
the  hind  limbs  that  it  can  be  turned  half  way 
round,  and  the  claws  pointed  backwards.  [Show 
how  this  assists  the  animal  to  ascend  perpendicular 
walls,  etc.] 

H  LRVEST  MOUSE. —  This,  one  of  the  smallest  of 
quadrupeds,  in  addition  to  specially  long,  flexible 
toes,  has  a  prehensile  tail.  She  climbs  grass  and 
corn  stalks  with  facility.  In  descending  she 
twists  her  tail  round  the  stem  and  slides  rapidly  to 
the  ground.  This  mouse  builds  a  very  pretty  nest 
about  the  size  of  a  cricket  ball,  and  suspends  it 
from  stout  grass  or  other  stems. 

Flying  Squirrel  (so  called.) — These  squirrels 
have  a  fold  of  the  skin  stretched  along  the  sides 
of  the  body,   ami  attached  to  the  legs  almost  to 


the  feet.  When  the  squirrels  take  theirlong  flying 
leaps  this  skin  is  stretched  to  its  utmost  extent  and 
gives  considerable  support  in  the  air.  (Compare 
with  an  open  umbrella  pulled  against  the  wind.] 

Beavers  have  the  toes  of  the  hind  feet  webbed, 
and  converted  into  paddles,  for  swimming  pur- 
poses. The  tail  is  large  and  scaly,  and  flattened 
above  and  below. 

The  Jerboas,  and  the  Jumping  Mice,  have  long 
and  strong  hind  legs  and  feet,  on  which  alone 
they  travel,  like  the  kangaroo. 

Jn  the  porcupine  long  spines  take  the  place  of 
ordinary  hair. 

Uses. —  The  rodents  are  most  valuable  for 
their  fine,  warm  furs,  and  millions  are  destroyed 
every  year  to  supply  the  market.  The  most  valu- 
uable  skins  are  those  of  the  squirrel,  rabbit,  hare, 
musk-rat.  beaver,  chinchilla. 


PORCUPINE 


100 


MODERN    METHODS. 


NATUEAL   HISTORY. 


101 


NOTES   OF    LESSON  "\ 


THE  FROG. 


(The teacher  should, If  possible,  secures  specimen. 
ii  may  be  kept  on  the  table  In  :i  small  wire  cage,  with 
a  >",i  of  grass  tor  the  floor.  A  picture  of  skeleton, 
ami.  falling  in  the  living  specimen,  a  picture  of  the 

animal  itself,  will  be  necessary.) 

,ENERAL   APPEARANCE.—  Were  it 
Dot    for  its    associations,    it    is    more 
than  probable  that  children  would  be 
-  '%>,  $3*     better     acquainted    with   the    pretty 
harmless  frog  than  they  usually  are  : 
but  as  it  is,  the  teacher  will  be  able  to 
elicit  some  facts  with  regard  to  general  ap- 
pearance, and  mode  of  progression. 

The  body  is  broad,  and  short,  and  squat,  and 
without  a  tail.  The  head  is  broad,  triangular  in 
shape,  and  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  body.  The  hind  limbs  and  feet  are  yeryloug, 
and  the  t<>es — five  in  number — are  webbed. 
The  four  toes  of  the  fore-limbs  resemble  ringers, 
and  are  sometimes  used  as  such.  The  skin, 
which  is  of  a  greenish-brown,  yellow,  or  reddish 
Color,  is  naked  and  covered  with  a  slimy  fluid. 
The  eyes  are  lame  ami  prominent.  Held  in  the 
hand  the  animal  feels  clammy,  and  cold. 

Locomotion. —  The  children  will  readily  asso- 
ciate the  jumping  mode  of  progression  on  land 
with  the  long  hind  legs ;  and  the  teacher  should 
compare  with  other  animals,  such  as  tin-  rabbit, 
which  move  in  a  somewhat  similar  fashion. 

The  webbed  feet  will  suggest  the  swimming 
powers  of  the  animal,  and  indicate  the  fact  that  it 
is  its  habit  to  live  in  the  water  as  well  as  on  the 
land.  [If  the  teacher  has  a  living  specimen,  the 
frog  itself  will  demonstrate  in  a  vessel  of  water 
how  it  swims.] 

Breathing. —  The  teacher  will  call  attention 
to  the  skeleton  of  the  frog,  showing  that  it  has  <<<< 
ribs.  Now  in  bieathing  we  make  use  of  our  ribs 
to  enlarge  the  cavity  of  the  chest,  and  so  admit 
the   air  through  the   nostrils  or  mouth    into    the 


lungs.  [Show  how  this  is  done.]  The  frog,  hav- 
ing no  ribs,  must  get  the  air  into  its  lungs  in  some 
other  way,  and  this  way  is  a  very  curious  one. 
The  frog  simply  swallows  the  air.  as  we  swallow 
our  food.  Try  and  swallow  with  the  mouth  open. 
You  cauuot ;   neither  can  the  frog  :  and  to  auffo- 


6KELETON   OF   A   FROG, 
(a)  Slernuffi.  ic. 

cate  a  frog,  therefore,  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep 
its  mouth  open. 

The  frog  closes  the  lip-,  and  expands  the 
cavity  of  the  mouth,  the  air  then  enters  through 
the  nostrils.  The  mouth  being  full,  the  nostrils 
close     like   valves,    and   the   uppei    portion   of    the 


102 


MODERN    METHODS. 


tube  leading  to  the  stomach  closes  also.  Lastly 
the  walls  of  the  mouth  contract,  and  the  air  is 
squeezed  into  the  lungs.  Watch  the  frog,  it 
seems  to  be  constantly  swallowing ;  and  so  it  is,  it 
is  swallowing  air.  But  clearly  this  method  of 
breathing  does  not  take  in  a  very  large  supply 
of  air,  and  although  it  is  probable  that  a  con- 
siderable additional  quantity  is  admitted  through 
the  moist  skin,  sufficient  is  not  taken  to  make 
the  blood  as  warm  as  ours. 

A  boy  in  running,  breathes  faster,  takes  in  more 
air,  and  gets  warmer.  Birds  breathe  very  fast, 
and  have  very  warm  bodies.  Frogs  breathe 
slowly  and  take  in  less  air ;  their  blood  is  colder 
than  ours.     They  are  called  cold-blooded  animals. 

Feeding. —  The  food  of  the  frog  consists 
of  living  insects,  snails,  and  worms ;  and  as  it 
swallows  its  prey  whole,  it  needs  no  teeth  with 
which  to  grind.  It  would  be  difficult,  however, 
for  a  frog  to  hold  a  wriggling  worm  with  the  lips 
only,  and  so  it  is  provided  with  a  row  of  small 
teeth  round  the  upper  jaw.  It  is  a  curious  sight 
to  watch  a  frog  in  the  act  of  swallowing  a  worm, 
pushing  it  into  its  mouth  with  the  fingers  of  the 
forepaws,  the  worm  all  the  while  twisting  and 
turning  in  its  efforts  to  escape. 

Insects,  however,  such  as  flies,  are  the  favorite 
food  of  the  frog.  And  how  is  it  to  capture  prey 
swifter  by  far  in  motion  than  itself?  It  is 
provided  witli  a  special  organ  in  its  curious 
tongue.  This  fleshy  organ  has  its  root  or 
base  in  front  instead  of  at  the  back  of  the  floor  of 
the  mouth  like  ours,  and  when  at  rest  the  tip 
of  the  tongue  points  backwards  towards  the 
throat.  This  arrangement  permits  the  owner  to 
protrude  almost  the  whole  of  the  tongue  so  that 
the  tip  extends  far  beyond  the  lips.  There  is  also 
another  curious  provision  ;  the  tip  is  covered  with 
a  thick,  sticky  matter  resembling  glue.  How  does 
(he  frog  use  this  curious  '<  fly-catcher?"  Watch 
it;  a  fly  is  within  striking  distance.  You  sec 
a  flash  of  something  red  from  the  frog's  mouth, 
and  the  fly  has  disappeared.  The  action  of  the 
tongue,    as    it    is    shot    out    and  withdrawn   with 


the  fly  on  its  tip,  is  so  rapid  that  it  can  hardly  be 
followed. 

Haunts. —  Frogs  cannot  breathe  in  the  water, 
except  perhaps  a  little  through  the  porous  skin, 
neither  is  the  fleshy  tongue  suitable  for  taking 
prey  in  the  water.  Hence  frogs  must  spend  the 
greater  portion  of  their  time  on  the  land.  Yet 
water  is  necessary  to  their  existence.  They  re- 
cpiire  plenty  of  moisture  to  keep  the  skin  in  a 
moist  state.  Kept  in  a  dry  place  the  skin  of 
the  frog  shrinks  and  dries,  and  becomes  like  stiff 
parchment,  and  the  animal  soon  dies.  Hence  we 
usually  find  frogs  near  ponds  and  ditches,  and  for 
the  same  reason  frogs  appear  to  be  more  plentiful 
after  storms,  because  the  moisture  tempts  them 
from  their  hiding  places. 

There  is  another  reason,  too,  why  frogs  fre- 
quent the  neighborhood  of  water.  At  the  bottom 
of  the  water  they  lay  their  eggs,  and  during 
the  winter,  when  insects  and  slugs  are  not  to 
be  found,  they  sleep  securely  beneath  the  mud 
until  the  warm  weather  comes  again. 

Uses. —  Frogs  are  useful  because  they  destroy 
large  numbers  of  insects  and  slugs  which  feed  on 
the  vegetables  and  flowers.  In  some  countries 
frogs  aie  eaten,  and  are  considered  a  dainty  diet. 
In  their  turn,  too,  they  serve  as  food  for  other 
animals,  such  as  snakes,  hedgehogs,  etc. 

(Living  specimens  of  tadpoles  in  their  various  stages 
of  clevelopement  will  make  this  a  very  interesting  les- 
son. They  are  easily  kept  some  time  in  a  warm  cor- 
ner. Failing  the  living  specimens,  pictures  may  be 
provided.) 

From  Egg  to  Tadpole. —  Few  animals  can 
boast  of  so  interesting  a  life-history  as  the  frog. 
In  the  early  spring,  children  in  the  country 
must  have  noticed  in  the  ditches  and  ponds  float- 
ing masses  of  jelly-like  beads  glued  together. 
These  are  the  eggs  of  the  frog.  In  looking  at  the 
spawn,  as  these  egg-masses  are  called,  we  do  not 
see  the  eggs  at  all.  or  at  most,  only  as  tiny  specks 
within  the  jelly-beads.  The  eggs,  tiny  as  pins' 
heads,  and  covered  with  a  glairy  substance,  are 
deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  water.  The  slimy 
envelope  absorbs  water,  and  the  mass  rises  to  the 


NATURAL    HISTORY. 


Ki.l 


surface.  The  bead  enclosing  each  lu':i<l  is  now 
:ilxmt  the  size  of  a  pea.  Toads,  as  well  as  frogs, 
lay  their  eggs  in  the  water,  but  the  toad  arranges 
her  eggs  in  doable  .strings  instead  of  masses. 

Unlike  birds,  frogs  take  no  further  trouble 
about  their  eggs  after  being  laid.  In  due  time, 
however,  they  are  hatched,  and  out  of  each 
there  comes,  not  a  frog,  but  a  creature  quite 
unlike  a  frog  in  every  particular  —  a  tadpole. 


growth,  to  see  what  changes  are  brought  about  as 
they  grow.  Hut  first  the  teacher  will  tell  the 
children  that  rather  below  than  in  front  of  the 
head  there  is  a  mouth,  and  that  this  little  mouth 
is  surrounded  by  thin,  horny  plates  sufficiently 
strong  to  enable  the  owner  to  nibble  off  the 
soft  vegetables  on  which  it  feeds.  [Compare  this 
kind  of  feeding  with  that  of  the  frog.] 

If  living  specimens  are  provided,  the  children 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FROc.; 


'■  f-ilff  °f  frog.      '-■     The  egg  fecundated  and  surrounded  by  jelly.      .'»'.     First  state  of  the  tadpole.      -/.    Appearance  of  the 
breathing-gills.     $.    Their  development.     8.     Formation  of  the  hind  feet.    7.     Formation  of  the  fore  feet  and  d 
of  the  gills.    8.    Development  of  the  lungs  and  reduction  of  the  tail,    u-    The  perfect  frog. 


The  name,  which  very  well  describes  the  animal, 
is  a  contraction  of  tailed-poll ;  and  poll  being 
another  name  for  head,  it  means  tailed-head.  And 
indeed  the  tadpole  looks  nothing  but  a  head,  with 
a  Bat  tail  attached  thereto. 

From  Tadpole  to  Frog.  —  Now  we  must 
examine  these  tiny  heads  and  tails  as  they  dart  and 
glide  about  in  the  water.  In  the  first  place  we 
shall  see  on  each  side  of  the  head  little  pink  tufts. 
These  are  gills.  They  act  like  the  gills  of  a  fish, 
and  enable  the  tadpole  to  breathe,  as  it  were. 
through  the  water.  [The  teacher  may  show  the 
gills  of  some  common  fish,  as  the  herring.]  It 
will  be  interesting  to  look  at  the  tadpole  of   larger 


will  be  able  to  note  the  more  evident  changes. 
As  the  body  increases  in  size  the  gills  are  enclosed 
iu  a  little  cavity  ;  but    they  soon  diminish   in  size, 

'and  the  tail  shortens.  It  is  possible  now  on  close 
inspection  to  find  a  pair  of  little  knob-like  pro- 
jections just  where  the  tail  joins  the  body.  These 
are  the  first  signs  of  the  legs.  The  legs  are 
formed    before   the   skin   is   broken.      This  tadpole 

'has  only  one  pair  of  legs,  but  an  older  tadpole 
shows  another  pair  of  knobs  in  front  of  the  pair  of 
legs.     These  will,  later  on,  become  the  front  pair  of 

legs. 
And  so  the  growth  and  the  changes  go  on  for 

many  weeks  ;   the   gills   continue   to  diminish,    and 


104 


MODERN   METHODS. 


the  tail  to  shorten,  until  none  of  either  is  left. 
Meantime  the  body  grows  full  and  broad,  the 
mouth  gets  round  to  the  front,  and  broadens  out. 
and  the  horny  plates  fall  off.  In  addition  to 
all  this,  no  less  interesting  and  important  changes 
have  been  going  on  inside  the  body.  In  the  place 
of  gills  lungs  have  been  formed,  so  that  the  animal 
which  before  could  breathe  only  in  the  water,  can 
now  breathe  only  in  the  air  ;  and  the  heart,  which 
in  the  tadpole  had  only  two  chambers  like  a 
fish,  has  now  three,  like  other  reptiles.  In  fact, 
externally  and  internally  a  complete  metamorpho- 


sis lias  taken  place.  The  tadpole,  formed  to  live 
and  move  and  have  its  being  in  the  water,  has 
become  changed  into  a  frog,  fitted  in  every  respect 
for  its  new  life  on  the  land. 

After  the  change  is  complete  it  takes  several 
years  before  the  frog  is  full  grown. 

There  is  one  other  curious  fact  to  record  in  the 
life-history  of  the  frog.  Like  the  snake,  it  period- 
ically sheds  its  coat;  but  unlike  the  snake,  the 
frog  works  the  shed  skin,  with  the  help  of  its  fin- 
gers, into  a  little  ball,  and,  pushing  it  into  its 
mouth,  swallows  it. 


